Early feeding

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In poultry farming, early feeding is the ad lib availability of feed and water for day-old chicks from the moment of hatching from the egg.

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Early feeding has a positive effect on chick performance because development and maturation of important organs is not retarded post hatch, but continues. This results in better growth performance and a better health status of the chickens.

The benefits of early feeding

Since the early 1990s, a lot of studies showed the benefits of early feeding and water on chick performance. In this paragraph a few studies are summarized to show the benefit of early feeding and water.

During the last few days of incubation, the residual yolk is retracted into the body cavity as an extension of the intestine. Post hatch, the residual yolk is the only nutrient source of the chicken until exogenous feed is available. Chickens can use the residual yolk for maintenance during the first few days post hatch. [1] However, research has shown that development and maturation of the gastrointestinal tract, [2] [3] and important immune related organs [4] is delayed in chickens that have to rely solely on their residual yolk and have no feed and water available between hatch and placement at the farm.

A study of Noy et al. (1996) showed that the residual yolk of chickens with access to feed during 96 hours after hatch reduced more rapid in size than in fasted birds. This can be caused by increased intestinal activity in fed chickens. [1] A more rapid reduction in residual yolk size indicates that valuable nutrients are earlier used for important developmental steps.

Geyra et al. (2001) showed that fasting post hatch retarded body weight increase and intestinal growth. The effects of fasting were specific to both time of fasting and the intestinal segment examined (duodenum, jejunum or ileum). The jejunum appeared to be the most sensitive of the intestinal segments. Fasting between 0 and 48 hours post hatch decreased crypt size, the number of crypts per villus, crypt proliferation, villus area, and the rate of enterocyte (intestinal absorptive cells) migration in the duodenum and jejunum. Geyra et al. (2001) concluded that early access to feed is important for optimal early intestinal development. [3]

Maiorka et al. (2003) also showed that the development of the gastrointestinal tract was directly linked to feed and water intake. They showed that relative weight and length of the jejunum and ileum increased when chickens were supplied with feed and water post hatch. In addition, intestinal mucosa development was affected by the availability of feed and water: the number of villi per area decreased because villi size increased. According to these findings Maiorka et al. (2003) hypothesized that the absence of physical stimuli caused by feed in the intestinal lumen and the specific need for certain nutrients, such as water, may be responsible for negative changes in the morphology of the intestinal mucosa. [2]

Protein in the residual yolk is the source of antibodies from the chicken. [5] To be effective, it is important that maternal antibodies move from the residual yolk into the bloodstream but also to sites of vulnerability such as the mucosal surfaces where bacteria and viruses can enter the body. Dibner et al. (1998) evaluated the effect of early feeding on the development of the immune system in broiler chickens. They showed that providing nutrients immediately post hatch resulted in heavier bursa weight, earlier appearance of biliary IgA and germinal centers (secondary lymphoid organs), and an improved resistance to a disease challenge. [4] In broiler chickens the first week of life is not only important for further development of the gastrointestinal tract and important immune related organs but is also an important period for muscle production. [6] Halevy et al. (2000) showed that the length and timing of fasting post hatch affects satellite cell activity. Short-term fasting can enhance satellite cell number. However, long-term fasting almost completely arrests cell mitosis and decreases the number of satellite cells. In the study of Halevy et al., (2000) the chickens that fasted during the first days of life did not regain their body weight or breast muscle weight by day 41, however chickens that fasted between day 4 and 6 post hatch had full growth compensation by day 41. Halevy et al. (2000) concluded that sufficient feed directly post hatch may be critical for later muscle development. [7] A study of Noy and Sklan (1999) [8] also showed that early feeding increased body weight and breast size at marketing age in chickens and poults. They showed that early feeding reduced mortality numerically.

See also

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Chicken Subspecies of domesticated bird

The chicken is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl originally from Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an adult male bird, and a younger male may be called a cockerel. A male that has been castrated is a capon. An adult female bird is called a hen and a sexually immature female is called a pullet.

Ileum

The ileum is the final section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not as clear and the terms posterior intestine or distal intestine may be used instead of ileum. Its main function is to absorb vitamin B12, bile salts, and whatever products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.

Jejunum Part of small intestine

The jejunum is the second part of the small intestine in humans and most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. Its lining is specialised for the absorption by enterocytes of small nutrient molecules which have been previously digested by enzymes in the duodenum.

Yolk Part of an egg which feeds the developing chicken embryo

Among animals which produce eggs, the yolk is the nutrient-bearing portion of the egg whose primary function is to supply food for the development of the embryo. Some types of egg contain no yolk, for example because they are laid in situations where the food supply is sufficient or because the embryo develops in the parent's body, which supplies the food, usually through a placenta. Reproductive systems in which the mother's body supplies the embryo directly are said to be matrotrophic; those in which the embryo is supplied by yolk are said to be lecithotrophic. In many species, such as all birds, and most reptiles and insects, the yolk takes the form of a special storage organ constructed in the reproductive tract of the mother. In many other animals, especially very small species such as some fish and invertebrates, the yolk material is not in a special organ, but inside the egg cell (ovum).

Hatchery

A hatchery is a facility where eggs are hatched under artificial conditions, especially those of fish, poultry or even turtles. It may be used for ex-situ conservation purposes, i.e. to breed rare or endangered species under controlled conditions; alternatively, it may be for economic reasons.

Chick culling Process of killing newly hatched chicks for which the industry has no use

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Natural growth promoters (NGPs) are feed additives for farm animals.

Gapeworm Species of roundworm

A gapeworm, also known as a red worm and forked worm, is a parasitic nematode worm that infects the tracheas of certain birds. The resulting disease, known as "gape" or "the gapes", occurs when the worms clog and obstruct the airway. The worms are also known as "red worms" or "forked worms" due to their red color and the permanent procreative conjunction of males and females. Gapeworms are common in young, domesticated chickens and turkeys.

Poultry farming Part of animal husbandry

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Egg as food Edible animal product

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Avian orthoreovirus, also known as avian reovirus, is an orthoreovirus from the Reoviridae family. Infection causes arthritis and tenosynovitis in poultry. It can also cause respiratory disease.

Solid white (chicken plumage) Breed of chicken

In poultry standards, solid white is coloration of plumage in chickens characterized by a uniform pure white color across all feathers, which is not generally associated with depigmentation in any other part of the body.

Dwarfism in chickens

Dwarfism in chickens is an inherited condition found in chickens consisting of a significant delayed growth, resulting in adult individuals with a distinctive small size in comparison with normal specimens of the same breed or population.

The avian immune system is the system of biological structures and cellular processes that protects birds from disease.

Broiler industry

The broiler industry is the process by which broiler chickens are reared and prepared for meat consumption. Worldwide, in 2005 production was 71,851,000 tonnes. From 1985 to 2005, the broiler industry grew by 158%.

Feed manufacturing

Feed manufacturing refers to the process of producing animal feed from raw agricultural products. Fodder produced by manufacturing is formulated to meet specific animal nutrition requirements for different species of animals at different life stages. According to the American Feed Industry Association (AFIA), there are four basic steps:

  1. Receive raw ingredients: Feed mills receive raw ingredients from suppliers. Upon arrival, the ingredients are weighed, tested and analyzed for various nutrients and to ensure their quality and safety.
  2. Create a formula: Nutritionists work side-by-side with scientists to formulate nutritionally sound and balanced diets for livestock, poultry, aquaculture and pets. This is a complex process, as every species has different nutritional requirements.
  3. Mix ingredients: Once the formula is determined, the mill mixes the ingredients to create a finished product.
  4. Package and label: Manufacturers determine the best way to ship the product. If it is prepared for retail, it will be “bagged and tagged,” or placed into a bag with a label that includes the product’s purpose, ingredients and instructions. If the product is prepared for commercial use, it will be shipped in bulk.

References

  1. 1 2 Noy, Y., Z. Uni, and D. Sklan. 1996. Routes of yolk utilization in the newly-hatched chick. Br. Poult. Sci. 37: 987-996.
  2. 1 2 Maiorka, A., E. Santin, F. Dahlke, I. C. Boleli, R. L. Furlan, and M. Macari. 2003. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 12: 483-492.
  3. 1 2 Geyra, A., Z. Uni, and D. Sklan. 2001. The effect of fasting at different ages on growth and tissue dynamics in the small intestine of the young chick. Br. J. Nutr. 86: 53-61.
  4. 1 2 Dibner, J. J., C. D. Knight, M. L. Kitchell, C. A. Atwell, A. C. Downs, and F. J. Ivey. 1998. Early feeding and development of the immune system in neonatal poultry. J. Appl. Poultry Res. 7: 425-436.
  5. ↑ Larsson, A., R. M. Balow, T. L. Lindahl, and P. O. Forsberg. 1993. Chicken antibodies: Taking advantage of evolution – A review. Poult. Sci. 72: 1807-1812.
  6. ↑ Moss, F. P., R. A. Sommonds, and H. W. McNary. 1964. The growth and composition of skeletal muscle in the chicken. 2. The relationship between muscle weight and the number of nuclei. Poult. Sci. 43: 283-290.
  7. ↑ Halevy, O. A. Geyra, M. Barak, Z. Uni, and D. Sklan. 2000. Early posthatch starvation decreases satellite cell proliferation and skeletal muscle growth in chicks. J. Nutr. 130: 858-864.
  8. ↑ Noy, Y., and D. Sklan. 1999. Different types of early feeding and performance in chicks and poults. J. Appl. Poultry Res. 8: 16-24.
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