Epidemiology of asthma

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Rates of asthma rates in 2017 Asthma prevalence, OWID.svg
Rates of asthma rates in 2017

As of 2011, approximately 235 million people worldwide were affected by asthma, [2] and roughly 250,000 people die per year from asthma-related causes. [3] Low and middle income countries make up more than 80% of the mortality. [4] Prevalences vary between countries from 1% to 18%. [3] Asthma tends to be more prevalent in developed than in developing countries. [3] Rates are lower in Asia, Eastern Europe, and Africa. [5] Within developed countries it is more common among those who are economically disadvantaged, but in contrast in developing countries it is more common amongst the affluent. [3] [6] The reason for these differences is not well known. [3]

Contents

While asthma is twice as common in boys as in girls, [3] severe asthma occurs at equal rates. [7] Among adults, however, asthma is twice as common in women as in men. [7] [8]

Increasing frequency

The prevalence of childhood asthma in the United States has increased since 1980, especially in younger children. Asthma prevalence.png
The prevalence of childhood asthma in the United States has increased since 1980, especially in younger children.

Rates of asthma have increased significantly between the 1960s and 2008 [9] [10] with it being recognized as a major public health problem since the 1970s. [5] Some 9% of US children had asthma in 2001, compared with just 3.6% in 1980. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that some 10% of the Swiss population have asthma as of 2007, compared with 2% some 25–30 years ago. [11] In the United States the age-adjusted prevalence of asthma increased from 7.3 to 8.2 percent during the years 2001 through 2009. [12]

Region specific data

United States

Asthma affects approximately 7% of the population of the United States and causes approximately 4,210 deaths per year. [13] [14] [15] In 2005, asthma affected more than 22 million people, including 6 million children, and accounted for nearly 500,000 hospitalizations that same year. [16] In 2010, asthma accounted for more than one-quarter of admitted emergency department visits in the U.S. among children aged 1–9 years, and it was a frequent diagnosis among children aged 10–17 years. [17] From 2000 through 2010, the rate of pediatric hospital stays for asthma declined from 165 to 130 per 100,000 population, respectively, whereas the rate for adults remained about 119 per 100,000 population. [18]

Asthma prevalence in the U.S. is higher than in most other countries in the world, but varies drastically between ethnic populations. [19] Asthma prevalence is highest in Puerto Ricans, Latino, African Americans, Filipinos, Irish Americans, and Native Hawaiians, and lowest in Mexicans and Koreans. [20] [21] [22] [23] Rates of asthma-related hospital admissions in 2010 were more than three times higher among African American children and two times higher for African American and Latino adults compared with White and Asian and Pacific Islander people. [18] [23] Also, children who are born in low-income families have higher risk of asthma. [24]

Asthma prevalence also differs between populations of the same ethnicity who are born and live in different places. [25] U.S.-born Mexican populations, for example, have higher asthma rates than non-U.S. born Mexican populations that are living in the U.S. [26]

United Kingdom

Asthma affects approximately 5% of the United Kingdom's population. [27] In England, an estimated 261,400 people were newly diagnosed with asthma in 2005; 5.7 million people had an asthma diagnosis and were prescribed 32.6 million asthma-related prescriptions. [28]

Canada

Data depicts an increasing trend in asthma prevalence among Canada's population. In 2000-2001 asthma prevalence was monitored at 6.5%; by 2010-2011 a 4.3% increase was shown, with asthma prevalence totaling 10.8% of Canada's population. [29]

Furthermore, asthma prevalence varies among the provinces of Canada; the highest prevalence is Ontario at 12.1%, and the lowest is Nunavut at 3.8%. [29] Though there is an overall decrease in the incidence of new asthma cases in Canada, prevalence is rising. This can be attributed to a decrease in case-specific mortality due to improved management and control of asthma and its symptoms.

Latin and Central America

It is approximated that 40 million Latin Americans live with asthma. [30]

In some reports, urban residency within Latin America has been found to be associated with an increased prevalence of asthma. [30] Childhood asthma prevalence was found to be higher than 15 percent in a majority of Latin American countries. [31] Similarly, a study published relating to asthma prevalence in Havana, Cuba estimated that approximately 9 percent of children under the age of 15 are undiagnosed for asthma, possible due to lack of resources in the region. [30]

Japan

The prevalence of asthma in adults in Japan is rapidly increasing, however there is a significant difference for the children in Japan. The mean prevalence of asthma in Japan has increased from about 1% to 10% or higher in children and to about 6–10% in adults since the 1960s. [32] There has been a 1.5 fold increase in the prevalence of asthma per decade in Japan from the 1960s. [32] Three surveys done from 1985, 1999 and 2006 show adult asthma is increasing, while the same surveys indicate that the prevalence of asthma in children is decreasing. [33] To compare this to another Asia-Pacific country the estimated prevalence of asthma in male and female children in Mongolia in a 2009 ISSAC study was 20.9% and 21.0% [34]

Asia

Data regarding the epidemiology of asthma in the continent of Asia as whole is scarce, particularly regarding adult populations. However, similarly to much of the rest of the globe, prevalence of childhood asthma appears to be rising. Systematic childhood studies, such as the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC), provide data regarding the epidemiology of asthma among Asia's youth population. Asthma prevalence among Asia's adult population is less clear in comparison due to the comparatively higher monitoring of younger populations. However, the data available points to a positive correlation between age and asthma prevalence. Findings indicate that the prevalence of asthma among the Asian adult population is less than 5%; while findings pertaining to elderly populations illustrate a rate somewhere between 1.3 and 15.3%. [35]

International migration

In a review of studies on the prevalence of asthma among migrant populations, those born in high-income countries were found to have higher rates of asthma than migrants. Second-generation migrants had a higher risk of asthma than first-generation migrants, and the prevalence of asthma increases with longer time of residence in the host country. [36] This confirms the role of the environment in the development of asthma.[ citation needed ]

Regional differences

A survey was conducted by the ISSAC Steering Committee from 1992 to 1993 in adults aged 22 to 44, comparing the prevalence of asthma in 10 developed countries. The population differences between these countries should be noted.[ why? ] The United States population in 1992 was 256.9 million, 14.5 times that of Australia (17.5 million), and 4.5 times that of the United Kingdom (57.51 million). [37] [38] [39] However, Australia and the UK have a higher prevalence than the US by 2.4 times on the lower end and 4.6 times on the higher end. In another study taken in 1992 for Japan the prevalence of asthma in Japan was 13% [40] with a population of 124.2 million. [41]

Country/groupYearsAge
group		Prevalence
(%)
Japan0520–448.1
Australia92–9320–4428.1
Australian Aboriginal90–9120–8411.1
UK
[ clarification needed ]		92–9320–44
20–44		27.0
30.3
Germany92–9320–4417.0
Spain92–9320–4422.0
France92–9320–4414.4
USA92–9320–4425.7
Italy92–9320–449.5
Iceland92–9320–4418.0
Greece92–9320–4416.0

Social determinants

Disparities in the prevalence of asthma have been shown between different socioeconomic statuses. [42] In the United States, socioeconomic status is associated with race, due to population trends, Black and Hispanic populations are more likely to have asthma, due to higher concentrations in low-income areas. In other areas of the world, the same trend that lower socioeconomic status is related to higher severity of asthma symptoms. Airway reactivity and symptoms for children of low socioeconomic status in Canada tend to be higher than those of higher-income areas. [42] The contrast between residents of rural and suburban areas can be seen in a study of Kenya [43] and Ethiopia, [44] where prevalence of asthma is lower in rural areas, and higher in urban areas. A similar trend can be seen in the United States, where an urban-rural gradient shows the increase in the prevalence of asthma closer to the inner city. [45]

A study published by BMC Pulmonary Medicine shows the relation between those who live in large urban, small urban, and rural areas. Large urban can be classified as the inner-city, and small urban is related to suburban areas. The inner city and rural communities have several commonalities that are important when determining socioeconomic status. They are both more likely to have higher poverty rates, and higher mortality rates, thus having a lower health status than suburban residents. [46] It was found that asthma prevalence in large urban areas was 20.9%, small urban was 21.5%, and rural was 15.1%. However, it is important to acknowledge that rural residents experienced more asthma-like symptoms (wheezing, whistling, and coughing) than those in urban areas, rural residents had 5% more asthma like symptoms. [45] Also, residents in large urban areas were less likely to use medical services for asthma symptoms. [45]

Multiple factors contribute to socioeconomic disparities, income and education, pollutant exposures and allergens are uncontrollable influences on an individual. Stressors related to neighborhood violence and safety, behavioral risk factors, and lack of access to adequate medications and healthcare also contribute to an increased prevalence of asthma. Low income alone accounts for a significant increase in poor asthma outcomes, including severity, lung function, and morbidity rates. [47]

Secondhand smoke is a common exposure for asthmatic children in low-income households. Children who live with at least one smoker are more likely to have asthma than those who don't. [48] People living below the poverty line and with less education have a higher second-hand smoke exposure than those who do not. [49] Also, those with blue-collar jobs are more likely to be exposed at work, as well as those with service jobs (servers and bartenders) are exposed to smoke at businesses that do not have smoking restrictions.

Gender

Globally, there are 136 million women with asthma, 57% of the 235 million people living with asthma. In addition to being more common among women, women experience more severe symptoms and are more likely to die from asthma. [50] The severity and frequency of asthma complications is related to both gender and age. Although asthma is more prevalent and more severe in boys among children, many women experience a significant worsening of symptoms around and after puberty. [51] The timing of the change in prevalence and severity around puberty suggest that asthma pathogenesis is related to sex hormones or hormone levels.[ citation needed ]

Between 2014-15 and 2019-20 more than 5,100 women in the United Kingdom died from an asthma attack compared with fewer than 2,300 men. Based on emergency hospital admissions in England, among all admissions 20 to 49 years old, women were 2.5 times more likely to be admitted to hospital for asthma treatment compared with men.[ citation needed ]

Notes

  1. ↑ "Asthma prevalence". Our World in Data. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  2. ↑ "World Health Organization Fact Sheet Fact sheet No 307: Asthma". 2009. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 GINA 2011 , pp. 2–5
  4. ↑ World Health Organization. "WHO: Asthma". Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
  5. 1 2 Mason RJ, Broaddus VC, Martin T, King TE, Schraufnagel DE, Murray JF, Nadel JA (2010). Murray and Nadel's textbook of respiratory medicine (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. pp. Chapter 38. ISBN   978-1416047100.
  6. ↑ Uphoff, E (2015). "A systematic review of socioeconomic position in relation to asthma and allergic diseases". European Respiratory Journal. 46 (2): 364–374. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00114514 . PMID   25537562.
  7. 1 2 Bush A, Menzies-Gow A; Menzies-Gow (December 2009). "Phenotypic differences between pediatric and adult asthma". Proc Am Thorac Soc. 6 (8): 712–9. doi:10.1513/pats.200906-046DP. PMID   20008882.
  8. ↑ "Testosterone explains why women more prone to asthma". ScienceDaily . May 8, 2017.
  9. ↑ Grant EN, Wagner R, Weiss KB (August 1999). "Observations on emerging patterns of asthma in our society". J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 104 (2 Pt 2): S1–9. doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70268-X. PMID   10452783.
  10. ↑ Anandan C, Nurmatov U, van Schayck OC, Sheikh A (February 2010). "Is the prevalence of asthma declining? Systematic review of epidemiological studies". Allergy. 65 (2): 152–67. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02244.x . PMID   19912154. S2CID   19525219.
  11. ↑ World Health Organization (2007). Global surveillance, prevention and control of chronic respiratory diseases: a comprehensive approach (PDF). World Health Organization. pp. 15–20, 49. ISBN   978-92-4-156346-8. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-14.
  12. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (May 2011). "Vital signs: asthma prevalence, disease characteristics, and self-management education: United States, 2001--2009". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 60 (17): 547–52. PMID   21544044.
  13. ↑ Fanta CH (March 2009). "Asthma". New England Journal of Medicine. 360 (10): 1002–14. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0804579. PMID   19264689.
  14. ↑ Lazarus SC (August 2010). "Clinical practice. Emergency treatment of asthma". N. Engl. J. Med. 363 (8): 755–64. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1003469. PMID   20818877.
  15. ↑ Getahun D, Demissie K, Rhoads GG (June 2005). "Recent trends in asthma hospitalization and mortality in the United States". J Asthma. 42 (5): 373–8. doi:10.1081/JAS-62995. PMID   16036412. S2CID   25298857.
  16. ↑ NHLBI Guideline 2007 , p. 1
  17. ↑ Wier LM, Hao Y, Owens P, Washington R. Overview of Children in the Emergency Department, 2010. HCUP Statistical Brief #157. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. May 2013. Archived 2013-12-03 at the Wayback Machine
  18. 1 2 Barrett ML, Wier LM, Washington R (January 2014). "Trends in Pediatric and Adult Hospital Stays for Asthma, 2000-2010". HCUP Statistical Brief (169). Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. PMID   24624462. Archived from the original on 2014-03-28. Retrieved 2014-03-28.
  19. ↑ Gold DR, Wright R (2005). "Population disparities in asthma". Annu Rev Public Health. 26: 89–113. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144528 . PMID   15760282.
  20. ↑ Lara M, Akinbami L, Flores G, Morgenstern H (January 2006). "Heterogeneity of childhood asthma among Hispanic children: Puerto Rican children bear a disproportionate burden". Pediatrics. 117 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1714. PMID   16396859. S2CID   38317718.
  21. ↑ Davis AM, Kreutzer R, Lipsett M, King G, Shaikh N (August 2006). "Asthma prevalence in Hispanic and Asian American ethnic subgroups: results from the California Healthy Kids Survey". Pediatrics. 118 (2): e363–70. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-2687. PMID   16882779. S2CID   21651814.
  22. ↑ Johnson DB, Oyama N, LeMarchand L, Wilkens L (September 2004). "Native Hawaiians mortality, morbidity, and lifestyle: comparing data from 1982, 1990, and 2000". Pac Health Dialog. 11 (2): 120–30. PMID   16281689.
  23. 1 2 Israel, Elliot; Cardet, Juan-Carlos; Carroll, Jennifer K.; Fuhlbrigge, Anne L.; She, Lilin; Rockhold, Frank W.; Maher, Nancy E.; Fagan, Maureen; Forth, Victoria E.; Yawn, Barbara P.; Hernandez, Paulina Arias (2022-02-26). "Reliever-Triggered Inhaled Glucocorticoid in Black and Latinx Adults with Asthma". New England Journal of Medicine. 386 (16): 1505–1518. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2118813 . PMC   10367430 . PMID   35213105. S2CID   247106044.
  24. ↑ "C-FERST Issue Profile: Childhood Asthma". EPA. 2016-03-30. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  25. ↑ Gold DR, Acevedo-Garcia D (July 2005). "Immigration to the United States and acculturation as risk factors for asthma and allergy". J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 116 (1): 38–41. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.04.033 . PMID   15990770.
  26. ↑ Eldeirawi KM, Persky VW (May 2006). "Associations of acculturation and country of birth with asthma and wheezing in Mexican American youths". J Asthma. 43 (4): 279–86. doi:10.1080/0277090060022869. PMID   16809241. S2CID   29050101.
  27. ↑ Anderson HR, Gupta R, Strachan DP, Limb ES (January 2007). "50 years of asthma: UK trends from 1955 to 2004". Thorax. 62 (1): 85–90. doi:10.1136/thx.2006.066407. PMC   2111282 . PMID   17189533.
  28. ↑ Simpson CR, Sheikh A (March 2010). "Trends in the epidemiology of asthma in England: a national study of 333,294 patients". J R Soc Med. 103 (3): 98–106. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2009.090348. PMC   3072257 . PMID   20200181.
  29. 1 2 Canada, Public Health Agency of (2018-05-01). "Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in Canada, 2018". aem. Retrieved 2018-11-26.
  30. 1 2 3 Forno E, Gogna M, Cepeda A, Yañez A, Solé D, Cooper P, Avila L, Soto-Quiros M, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Celedón JC (September 2015). "Asthma in Latin America". Thorax. 70 (9): 898–905. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2015-207199. PMC   4593416 . PMID   26103996.
  31. ↑ Mallol J, Solé D, Baeza-Bacab M, Aguirre-Camposano V, Soto-Quiros M, Baena-Cagnani C (August 2010). "Regional variation in asthma symptom prevalence in Latin American children". The Journal of Asthma. 47 (6): 644–50. doi:10.3109/02770901003686480. PMID   20642377. S2CID   23993282.
  32. 1 2 Ichinose, Masakazu; Sugiura, Hisatoshi; Nagase, Hiroyuki; Yamaguchi, Masao; Inoue, Hiromasa; Sagara, Hironori; Tamaoki, Jun; Tohda, Yuji; Munakata, Mitsuru; Yamauchi, Kohei; Ohta, Ken; Japanese Society of Allergology (2017-04-01). "Japanese guidelines for adult asthma 2017". Allergology International. 66 (2): 163–189. doi: 10.1016/j.alit.2016.12.005 . ISSN   1323-8930. PMID   28196638.
  33. ↑ Iwanaga, Takashi; Tohda, Yuji (October 2016). "Epidemiology of asthma in Japan". Nihon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine. 74 (10): 1603–1608. ISSN   0047-1852. PMID   30551268.
  34. ↑ Yoshihara, Shigemi; Munkhbayarlakh, Sonomjants; Makino, Sohei; Ito, Clyde; Logii, Narantsetseg; Dashdemberel, Sarangerel; Sagara, Hironori; Fukuda, Takeshi; Arisaka, Osamu (2016-01-01). "Prevalence of childhood asthma in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia in 2009". Allergology International. 65 (1): 62–67. doi: 10.1016/j.alit.2015.07.009 . ISSN   1323-8930. PMID   26666488.
  35. ↑ Song WJ, Kang MG, Chang YS, Cho SH (April 2014). "Epidemiology of adult asthma in Asia: toward a better understanding". Asia Pacific Allergy. 4 (2): 75–85. doi:10.5415/apallergy.2014.4.2.75. PMC   4005350 . PMID   24809012.
  36. ↑ Cabieses, B (2014). "A Systematic Review on the Development of Asthma and Allergic Diseases in Relation to International Immigration: The Leading Role of the Environment Confirmed". PLOS ONE. 9 (8): e105347. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j5347C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105347 . PMC   4139367 . PMID   25141011.
  37. ↑ Bureau, US Census. "Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1992". The United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2020-12-03.{{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  38. ↑ "Population, total - Australia | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  39. ↑ "Population, total - United Kingdom | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  40. ↑ Ichinose, Masakazu; Sugiura, Hisatoshi; Nagase, Hiroyuki; Yamaguchi, Masao; Inoue, Hiromasa; Sagara, Hironori; Tamaoki, Jun; Tohda, Yuji; Munakata, Mitsuru; Yamauchi, Kohei; Ohta, Ken; Japanese Society of Allergology (2017-04-01). "Japanese guidelines for adult asthma 2017". Allergology International. 66 (2): 163–189. doi: 10.1016/j.alit.2016.12.005 . ISSN   1323-8930. PMID   28196638.
  41. ↑ "Population, total - United Kingdom, Japan | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
  42. 1 2 Litonjua, Augusto A.; Carey, Vincent J.; Weiss, Scott T.; Gold, Diane R. (1999). "Race, socioeconomic factors, and area of residence are associated with asthma prevalence". Pediatric Pulmonology. 28 (6): 394–401. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0496(199912)28:6<394::AID-PPUL2>3.0.CO;2-6. ISSN   1099-0496. PMID   10587412. S2CID   43744145.
  43. ↑ Odhiambo, J.A.; Ng'ang'a, L.W.; Mungai, M.W.; Gicheha, C.M.; Nyamwaya, J.K.; Karimi, F.; MacKlem, P.T.; Becklake, M.R. (1998-11-01). "Urban–rural differences in questionnaire-derived markers of asthma in Kenyan school children". European Respiratory Journal. 12 (5): 1105–1112. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.12051105 . ISSN   0000-0000. PMID   9864005.
  44. ↑ Yemaneberhan, Haile; Bekele, Zegaye; Venn, Andrea; Lewis, Sarah; Parry, Eldryd; Britton, John (July 1997). "Prevalence of wheeze and asthma and relation to atopy in urban and rural Ethiopia". The Lancet. 350 (9071): 85–90. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)01151-3. ISSN   0140-6736. PMID   9228959. S2CID   36933263.
  45. 1 2 3 Lawson, Joshua A.; Rennie, Donna C.; Cockcroft, Don W.; Dyck, Roland; Afanasieva, Anna; Oluwole, Oluwafemi; Afsana, Jinnat (2017-01-05). "Childhood asthma, asthma severity indicators, and related conditions along an urban-rural gradient: a cross-sectional study". BMC Pulmonary Medicine. 17 (1): 4. doi: 10.1186/s12890-016-0355-5 . ISSN   1471-2466. PMC   5216545 . PMID   28056923.
  46. ↑ Blumenthal, Susan J.; Kagen, Jessica (2002-01-02). "The Effects of Socioeconomic Status on Health in Rural and Urban America". JAMA. 287 (1): 109. doi:10.1001/jama.287.1.109-JMS0102-3-1. ISSN   0098-7484.
  47. ↑ Cardet, Juan Carlos; Louisias, Margee; King, Tonya S.; Castro, Mario; Codispoti, Christopher D.; Dunn, Ryan; Engle, Linda; Giles, B. Louise; Holguin, Fernando; Lima, John J.; Long, Dayna (February 2018). "Income is an independent risk factor for worse asthma outcomes". Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 141 (2): 754–760.e3. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2017.04.036. PMC   5696111 . PMID   28535964.
  48. ↑ Ciaccio, Christina E.; DiDonna, Anita; Kennedy, Kevin; Barnes, Charles S.; Portnoy, Jay M.; Rosenwasser, Lanny J. (2014-11-01). "Secondhand tobacco smoke exposure in low-income children and its association with asthma". Allergy and Asthma Proceedings. 35 (6): 462–466. doi:10.2500/aap.2014.35.3788. ISSN   1088-5412. PMC   4210654 . PMID   25584913.
  49. ↑ CDCTobaccoFree (2021-04-23). "Cigarette and Tobacco Use Among People of Low Socioeconomic Status". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
  50. ↑ "Asthma and Lung UK report - Asthma is worse for women (27 April 2022)". Patient Safety Learning - the hub. 27 April 2022. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
  51. ↑ Shah, Ruchi; Newcomb, Dawn C. (2018). "Sex Bias in Asthma Prevalence and Pathogenesis". Frontiers in Immunology. 9: 2997. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02997 . ISSN   1664-3224. PMC   6305471 . PMID   30619350.
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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peanut allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by peanuts

Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is different from tree nut allergies, because peanuts are legumes and not true nuts. Physical symptoms of allergic reaction can include itchiness, hives, swelling, eczema, sneezing, asthma attack, abdominal pain, drop in blood pressure, diarrhea, and cardiac arrest. Anaphylaxis may occur. Those with a history of asthma are more likely to be severely affected.

Diseases of poverty, also known as poverty-related diseases, are diseases that are more prevalent in low-income populations. They include infectious diseases, as well as diseases related to malnutrition and poor health behaviour. Poverty is one of the major social determinants of health. The World Health Report (2002) states that diseases of poverty account for 45% of the disease burden in the countries with high poverty rate which are preventable or treatable with existing interventions. Diseases of poverty are often co-morbid and ubiquitous with malnutrition. Poverty increases the chances of having these diseases as the deprivation of shelter, safe drinking water, nutritious food, sanitation, and access to health services contributes towards poor health behaviour. At the same time, these diseases act as a barrier for economic growth to affected people and families caring for them which in turn results into increased poverty in the community. These diseases produced in part by poverty are in contrast to diseases of affluence, which are diseases thought to be a result of increasing wealth in a society.

The Hispanic paradox is an epidemiological finding that Hispanic Americans tend to have health outcomes that "paradoxically" are comparable to, or in some cases better than, those of their U.S. non-Hispanic White counterparts, even though Hispanics have lower average income and education, higher rates of disability, as well as a higher incidence of various cardiovascular risk factors and metabolic diseases.

Vocal cord dysfunction (VCD) is a condition affecting the vocal cords. It is characterized by abnormal closure of the vocal folds, which can result in significant difficulties and distress during breathing, particularly during inhalation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidemiology of obesity</span> Recognition of obesity as an epidemic

Obesity has been observed throughout human history. Many early depictions of the human form in art and sculpture appear obese. However, it was not until the 20th century that obesity became common — so much so that, in 1997, the World Health Organization (WHO) formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic and estimated that the worldwide prevalence of obesity has nearly tripled since 1975. Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) greater than or equal to 30 kg/m2, and in June 2013 the American Medical Association classified it as a disease.

The social determinants of health in poverty describe the factors that affect impoverished populations' health and health inequality. Inequalities in health stem from the conditions of people's lives, including living conditions, work environment, age, and other social factors, and how these affect people's ability to respond to illness. These conditions are also shaped by political, social, and economic structures. The majority of people around the globe do not meet their potential best health because of a "toxic combination of bad policies, economics, and politics". Daily living conditions work together with these structural drivers to result in the social determinants of health.

Health in Nicaragua is influenced by several factors including public health policies, the availability of healthcare facilities, environmental influences, individual lifestyle choices, and socioeconomic circumstances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity in Indonesia</span> Overview of obesity in Indonesia

According to the World Health Organization (2015), the "worldwide population of overweight and obese adults increased between 1980 and 2013 from 30 percent to 38 percent in women, and 29 percent to 37 percent in men". The prevalence of obesity continues to rise in all age groups in this developing country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shellfish allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by shellfish

Shellfish allergy is among the most common food allergies. "Shellfish" is a colloquial and fisheries term for aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs such as clams, mussels, oysters and scallops, crustaceans such as shrimp, lobsters and crabs, and cephalopods such as squid and octopus. Shellfish allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in shellfish. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus. Shellfish is one of the eight common food allergens, responsible for 90% of allergic reactions to foods: cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sesame allergy</span> Food allergy caused by sesame seeds

A food allergy to sesame seeds has prevalence estimates in the range of 0.1–0.2% of the general population, and are higher in the Middle East and other countries where sesame seeds are used in traditional foods. Reporting of sesame seed allergy has increased in the 21st century, either due to a true increase from exposure to more sesame foods or due to an increase in awareness. Increasing sesame allergy rates have induced more countries to regulate food labels to identify sesame ingredients in products and the potential for allergy. In the United States, sesame became the ninth food allergen with mandatory labeling, effective 1 January 2023.

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