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Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore a lower photon energy, than the absorbed radiation. A perceptible example of fluorescence occurs when the absorbed radiation is in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum, while the emitted light is in the visible region; this gives the fluorescent substance a distinct color that can only be seen when the substance has been exposed to UV light. Fluorescent materials cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescent materials, which continue to emit light for some time after.
In molecular biology and biotechnology, a fluorescent tag, also known as a fluorescent label or fluorescent probe, is a molecule that is attached chemically to aid in the detection of a biomolecule such as a protein, antibody, or amino acid. Generally, fluorescent tagging, or labeling, uses a reactive derivative of a fluorescent molecule known as a fluorophore. The fluorophore selectively binds to a specific region or functional group on the target molecule and can be attached chemically or biologically. Various labeling techniques such as enzymatic labeling, protein labeling, and genetic labeling are widely utilized. Ethidium bromide, fluorescein and green fluorescent protein are common tags. The most commonly labelled molecules are antibodies, proteins, amino acids and peptides which are then used as specific probes for detection of a particular target.
The emission spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted due to electrons making a transition from a high energy state to a lower energy state. The photon energy of the emitted photons is equal to the energy difference between the two states. There are many possible electron transitions for each atom, and each transition has a specific energy difference. This collection of different transitions, leading to different radiated wavelengths, make up an emission spectrum. Each element's emission spectrum is unique. Therefore, spectroscopy can be used to identify elements in matter of unknown composition. Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical analysis of substances.
Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet, visible light (400–750 nm) or infrared radiation (750–2500 nm).
A fluorophore is a fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light excitation. Fluorophores typically contain several combined aromatic groups, or planar or cyclic molecules with several π bonds.
Plate readers, also known as microplate readers or microplate photometers, are instruments which are used to detect biological, chemical or physical events of samples in microtiter plates. They are widely used in research, drug discovery, bioassay validation, quality control and manufacturing processes in the pharmaceutical and biotechnological industry and academic organizations. Sample reactions can be assayed in 1-1536 well format microtiter plates. The most common microplate format used in academic research laboratories or clinical diagnostic laboratories is 96-well with a typical reaction volume between 100 and 200 µL per well. Higher density microplates are typically used for screening applications, when throughput and assay cost per sample become critical parameters, with a typical assay volume between 5 and 50 µL per well. Common detection modes for microplate assays are absorbance, fluorescence intensity, luminescence, time-resolved fluorescence, and fluorescence polarization.
Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), fluorescence resonance energy transfer, resonance energy transfer (RET) or electronic energy transfer (EET) is a mechanism describing energy transfer between two light-sensitive molecules (chromophores). A donor chromophore, initially in its electronic excited state, may transfer energy to an acceptor chromophore through nonradiative dipole–dipole coupling. The efficiency of this energy transfer is inversely proportional to the sixth power of the distance between donor and acceptor, making FRET extremely sensitive to small changes in distance.
Tautomers are structural isomers of chemical compounds that readily interconvert. The chemical reaction interconverting the two is called tautomerization. This conversion commonly results from the relocation of a hydrogen atom within the compound. The phenomenon of tautomerization is called tautomerism, also called desmotropism. Tautomerism is for example relevant to the behavior of amino acids and nucleic acids, two of the fundamental building blocks of life.
In particle physics, the quantum yield of a radiation-induced process is the number of times a specific event occurs per photon absorbed by the system.
Photosensitizers are light absorbers that alter the course of a photochemical reaction. They usually are catalysts. They can function by many mechanisms, sometimes they donate an electron to the substrate, sometimes they abstract a hydrogen atom from the substrate. At the end of this process, the photosensitizer returns to its ground state, where it remains chemically intact, poised to absorb more light. One branch of chemistry which frequently utilizes photosensitizers is polymer chemistry, using photosensitizers in reactions such as photopolymerization, photocrosslinking, and photodegradation. Photosensitizers are also used to generate prolonged excited electronic states in organic molecules with uses in photocatalysis, photon upconversion and photodynamic therapy. Generally, photosensitizers absorb electromagnetic radiation consisting of infrared radiation, visible light radiation, and ultraviolet radiation and transfer absorbed energy into neighboring molecules. This absorption of light is made possible by photosensitizers' large de-localized π-systems, which lowers the energy of HOMO and LUMO orbitals to promote photoexcitation. While many photosensitizers are organic or organometallic compounds, there are also examples of using semiconductor quantum dots as photosensitizers.
In chemistry, quenching refers to any process which decreases the fluorescent intensity of a given substance. A variety of processes can result in quenching, such as excited state reactions, energy transfer, complex-formation and collisions. As a consequence, quenching is often heavily dependent on pressure and temperature. Molecular oxygen, iodine ions and acrylamide are common chemical quenchers. The chloride ion is a well known quencher for quinine fluorescence. Quenching poses a problem for non-instant spectroscopic methods, such as laser-induced fluorescence.
A photoswitch is a type of molecule that can change its structural geometry and chemical properties upon irradiation with electromagnetic radiation. Although often used interchangeably with the term molecular machine, a switch does not perform work upon a change in its shape whereas a machine does. However, photochromic compounds are the necessary building blocks for light driven molecular motors and machines. Upon irradiation with light, photoisomerization about double bonds in the molecule can lead to changes in the cis- or trans- configuration. These photochromic molecules are being considered for a range of applications.
2-Pyridone is an organic compound with the formula C
5H
4NH(O). It is a colourless solid. It is well known to form hydrogen bonded dimers and it is also a classic case of a compound that exists as tautomers.
A molecular logic gate is a molecule that performs a logical operation based on one or more physical or chemical inputs and a single output. The field has advanced from simple logic systems based on a single chemical or physical input to molecules capable of combinatorial and sequential operations such as arithmetic operations. Molecular logic gates work with input signals based on chemical processes and with output signals based on spectroscopic phenomena.
A molecular sensor or chemosensor is a molecular structure that is used for sensing of an analyte to produce a detectable change or a signal. The action of a chemosensor, relies on an interaction occurring at the molecular level, usually involves the continuous monitoring of the activity of a chemical species in a given matrix such as solution, air, blood, tissue, waste effluents, drinking water, etc. The application of chemosensors is referred to as chemosensing, which is a form of molecular recognition. All chemosensors are designed to contain a signalling moiety and a recognition moiety, that is connected either directly to each other or through a some kind of connector or a spacer. The signalling is often optically based electromagnetic radiation, giving rise to changes in either the ultraviolet and visible absorption or the emission properties of the sensors. Chemosensors may also be electrochemically based. Small molecule sensors are related to chemosensors. These are traditionally, however, considered as being structurally simple molecules and reflect the need to form chelating molecules for complexing ions in analytical chemistry. Chemosensors are synthetic analogues of biosensors, the difference being that biosensors incorporate biological receptors such as antibodies, aptamers or large biopolymers.
Fluorescence is used in the life sciences generally as a non-destructive way of tracking or analysing biological molecules. Some proteins or small molecules in cells are naturally fluorescent, which is called intrinsic fluorescence or autofluorescence. Alternatively, specific or general proteins, nucleic acids, lipids or small molecules can be "labelled" with an extrinsic fluorophore, a fluorescent dye which can be a small molecule, protein or quantum dot. Several techniques exist to exploit additional properties of fluorophores, such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer, where the energy is passed non-radiatively to a particular neighbouring dye, allowing proximity or protein activation to be detected; another is the change in properties, such as intensity, of certain dyes depending on their environment allowing their use in structural studies.
3-Hydroxyflavone is a chemical compound. It is the backbone of all flavonols, a type of flavonoid. It is a synthetic compound, which is not found naturally in plants. It serves as a model molecule as it possesses an excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) effect to serve as a fluorescent probe to study membranes for example or intermembrane proteins. The green tautomer emission and blue-violet normal emission originate from two different ground state populations of 3HF molecules. The phenomenon also exists in natural flavonols. Although 3-hydroxyflavone is almost insoluble in water, its aqueous solubility can be increased by encapsulation in cyclodextrin cavities.
Photon upconversion (UC) is a process in which the sequential absorption of two or more photons leads to the emission of light at shorter wavelength than the excitation wavelength. It is an anti-Stokes type emission. An example is the conversion of infrared light to visible light. Upconversion can take place in both organic and inorganic materials, through a number of different mechanisms. Organic molecules that can achieve photon upconversion through triplet-triplet annihilation are typically polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Inorganic materials capable of photon upconversion often contain ions of d-block or f-block elements. Examples of these ions are Ln3+, Ti2+, Ni2+, Mo3+, Re4+, Os4+, and so on.
Lanthanide probes are a non-invasive analytical tool commonly used for biological and chemical applications. Lanthanides are metal ions which have their 4f energy level filled and generally refer to elements cerium to lutetium in the periodic table. The fluorescence of lanthanide salts is weak because the energy absorption of the metallic ion is low; hence chelated complexes of lanthanides are most commonly used. The term chelate derives from the Greek word for “claw,” and is applied to name ligands, which attach to a metal ion with two or more donor atoms through dative bonds. The fluorescence is most intense when the metal ion has the oxidation state of 3+. Not all lanthanide metals can be used and the most common are: Sm(III), Eu(III), Tb(III), and Dy(III).
Thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) is a process through which a molecular species in a non-emitting excited state can incorporate surrounding thermal energy to change states and only then undergo light emission. The TADF process involves an excited molecular species in a triplet state, which commonly has a forbidden transition to the ground state termed phosphorescence. By absorbing nearby thermal energy the triplet state can undergo reverse intersystem crossing (RISC) converting it to a singlet state, which can then de-excite to the ground state and emit light in a process termed fluorescence. Along with fluorescent and phosphorescent compounds, TADF compounds are one of the three main light-emitting materials used in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).
References
- ↑ Joshi, Hem; Antonov, Liudmil (2021). "Excited-State Intramolecular Proton Transfer: A Short Introductory Review". Molecules. 26 (5): 1475. doi: 10.3390/molecules26051475 . PMC 7963178 . PMID 33803102.
- ↑ Zhao, Jianzhang; Ji, Shaomin; Chen, Yinghui; Guo, Huimin; Yang, Pei (2012). "Excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT): from principal photophysics to the development of new chromophores and applications in fluorescent molecular probes and luminescent materials". Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 14 (25): 8803–8817. Bibcode:2012PCCP...14.8803Z. doi:10.1039/C2CP23144A. PMID 22193300.
- ↑ Yin, Hang; Li, Hui; Xia, Guomin; Ruan, Chengyan; Shi, Ying; Wang, Hongming; Jin, Mingxing; Ding, Dajun (21 January 2016). "A novel non-fluorescent excited state intramolecular proton transfer phenomenon induced by intramolecular hydrogen bonds: an experimental and theoretical investigation". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 19774. Bibcode:2016NatSR...619774Y. doi: 10.1038/srep19774 . PMC 4726414 . PMID 26790961.
- ↑ Han, Gi Rim; Hwang, Doyk; Lee, Seunghoon; Lee, Jong Woo; Lim, Eunhak; Heo, Jiyoung; Kim, Seong Keun (20 June 2017). "Shedding new light on an old molecule: quinophthalone displays uncommon N-to-O excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) between photobases". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 3863. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.3863H. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-04114-9 . PMC 5478638 . PMID 28634405.
- ↑ English, D. S.; Zhang, W.; Kraus, G. A.; Petrich, J. W. (April 1997). "Excited-State Photophysics of Hypericin and Its Hexamethoxy Analog: Intramolecular Proton Transfer as a Nonradiative Process in Hypericin". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 119 (13): 2980–2986. doi:10.1021/ja962476h.
- ↑ Flom, Steven R.; Barbara, Paul F. (October 1985). "Proton transfer and hydrogen bonding in the internal conversion of S1 anthraquinones". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 89 (21): 4489–4494. doi:10.1021/j100267a017.
- ↑ Agmon, Noam (January 2005). "Elementary Steps in Excited-State Proton Transfer". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 109 (1): 13–35. doi:10.1021/jp047465m. PMID 16839085.
- ↑ Chen, Wei-Hua; Xing, Yu; Pang, Yi (18 March 2011). "A Highly Selective Pyrophosphate Sensor Based on ESIPT Turn-On in Water". Organic Letters. 13 (6): 1362–1365. doi:10.1021/ol200054w. PMID 21338073.
- ↑ Lim, Seon-Jeong; Seo, Jangwon; Park, Soo Young (November 2006). "Photochromic Switching of Excited-State Intramolecular Proton-Transfer (ESIPT) Fluorescence: A Unique Route to High-Contrast Memory Switching and Nondestructive Readout". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 128 (45): 14542–14547. doi:10.1021/ja0637604. PMID 17090038.
- ↑ Park, Sanghyuk; Kwon, Ji Eon; Kim, Se Hun; Seo, Jangwon; Chung, Kyeongwoon; Park, Sun-Young; Jang, Du-Jeon; Medina, Begoña Milián; Gierschner, Johannes; Park, Soo Young (7 October 2009). "A White-Light-Emitting Molecule: Frustrated Energy Transfer between Constituent Emitting Centers". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 131 (39): 14043–14049. doi:10.1021/ja902533f. PMID 19480450.