Web sources
- Hans-Urs Wili:Bundesinterventionen in German , French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland .
The term federal execution, or (German: Bundesexekution) refers to the right of a confederation or federation to act militarily against individual member states if they violate duties resulting from membership. The term " Reichsexekution " is also used in Germany depending on the respective state name.
The German Confederation (1815–1866) was obliged to proceed against the government of a member state by means of a Bundesexekution, insofar as this was contrary to the provisions of the German Confederation Constitution or other Federal decrees.
The foundations of the Confederation were Article 31 of the Vienna Final Act and the Execution Order of 1820. In order to force a state to comply with its obligations, the following measures were envisaged:
A Federal Commissioner was appointed who was responsible for implementing these measures.
Federal executions in the German Confederation:
The federal execution was to be distinguished from federal intervention which was not directed against the government of a member state, but against anti-German movements and served to secure the monarchical legitimists and public peace. It was also necessary to distinguish the Bundeskrieg (Federal War) in order to ward off attacks by foreign powers.
In Switzerland, federal execution describes federal compulsory measures against individual cantons, if they do not comply with their federal obligations. The foundations of this were Articles 173 and 186 of the Federal Constitution. Federal execution may also have meant the fulfilment of duty by the Confederation at the expense of the canton (replacement action) or temporary suspension of subsidies. The last measure would then have to have been a military action against the canton. The federal execution was decided by the Federal Assembly and the implementation of it was the responsibility of the Federal Council. The following prerequisites must have been cumulative for the Federal Security to implement them:
In addition, a canton could appeal to the federal court before the execution, if it saw itself violated by the covenant.
The Swiss Confederation was differentiated from the Federal Intervention in Switzerland. The latter served the protection of cantonal organs against turmoil and disturbance in accordance to Article 52 of the Federal Constitution and may have been connected with the use of military troops. Today, the principle that cantonal police officers are deployed and army units of the Confederation are to be deployed on a subsidiary basis in case of urgent need. In the country-wide general strike of 1918, different methods were used. Some army units serving in the First World War were used against striking workers, which ultimately also led to some casualties. It was an official service, whilst maintaining cantonal sovereignty, not a federal intervention.
Ten federal interventions have been carried out since 1848, nine of them during the 19th century, the tenth during the unrest in Geneva in 1932.
Whilst the federal execution in the German Confederation was directed against a member state, which did not want to fulfil its obligations, the federal intervention was a help for the member state that was beset by unrest which it could not itself suppress.
The federal execution was the legal equivalent to the Reichsexekution in the Holy Roman Empire and in the German Empire. In the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949, the term "Bundeszwang" (English: federal pressure) is used. Article 155 of the Constitution of Spain is based on the provision in the German Basic Law (article 37) almost verbatim. However, unlike in Spain where Article 155 was invoked in the 2017–2018 Spanish constitutional crisis, Article 37 of the Basic Law has never been invoked.
Since 1848 the Swiss Confederation has been a federal republic of relatively autonomous cantons, some of which have a history of federation that goes back more than 700 years, putting them among the world's oldest surviving republics.
The Duchy of Schleswig was a duchy in Southern Jutland covering the area between about 60 km north and 70 km (45 mi) south of the current border between Germany and Denmark. The territory has been divided between the two countries since 1920, with Northern Schleswig in Denmark and Southern Schleswig in Germany. The region is also called Sleswick in English.
The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany is the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany.
The German Confederation was an association of 39 predominantly German-speaking sovereign states in Central Europe. It was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806 in reaction to the Napoleonic Wars.
A federation is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision, neither by the component states nor the federal political body.
The 26 cantons of Switzerland are the member states of the Swiss Confederation. The nucleus of the Swiss Confederacy in the form of the first three confederate allies used to be referred to as the Waldstätte. Two important periods in the development of the Old Swiss Confederacy are summarized by the terms Acht Orte and Dreizehn Orte.
The history of Schleswig-Holstein consists of the corpus of facts since the pre-history times until the modern establishing of the Schleswig-Holstein state.
The Constitution of the German Reich, usually known as the Weimar Constitution, was the constitution that governed Germany during the Weimar Republic era (1919–1933). The constitution declared Germany to be a democratic parliamentary republic with a legislature elected under proportional representation. Universal suffrage was established, with a minimum voting age of 20. The constitution technically remained in effect throughout the Nazi era from 1933 to 1945 as well as during the Allied occupation of Germany from 1945 to 1949, though practically it had been repealed by the Enabling Act of 1933 and thus its various provisions and protections went unenforced for the duration of Nazi rule, and after World War II, the power of the Allied Control Council and four occupying powers once again stood above the provisions of the constitution.
The Frankfurt Parliament was the first freely elected parliament for all German states, including the German-populated areas of the Austrian Empire, elected on 1 May 1848.
Appenzell Innerrhoden, in English sometimes Appenzell Inner-Rhodes, is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of six districts. The seat of the government and parliament is Appenzell. It is traditionally considered a "half-canton", the other half being Appenzell Ausserrhoden.
The Second Schleswig War, also sometimes known as the Dano-Prussian War or Prusso-Danish War, was the second military conflict over the Schleswig-Holstein Question of the nineteenth century. The war began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border into the Danish fief Schleswig. Denmark fought troops of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire representing the German Confederation.
The Schleswig–Holstein question was a complex set of diplomatic and other issues arising in the 19th century from the relations of two duchies, Schleswig and Holstein, to the Danish Crown, to the German Confederation, and to each other.
The Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland is the supreme court of the Swiss Confederation and at the head of the Swiss judiciary.
The rise of Switzerland as a federal state began on 12 September 1848, with the creation of a federal constitution in response to a 27-day civil war, the Sonderbundskrieg. The constitution, which was heavily influenced by the United States Constitution and the ideas of the French Revolution, was modified several times during the following decades and wholly replaced in 1999. The 1848 constitution represented the first time, other than when the short-lived Helvetic Republic had been imposed, that the Swiss had a central government instead of being simply a collection of autonomous cantons bound by treaties.
The Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999 is the third and current federal constitution of Switzerland.
The Swiss labor law covers all standards governing the employment of some kind. The regulation of the employment by private employers is largely harmonized at the federal level, while public-sector employment still prevails a variety of cantonal laws. In particular, the civil standardization is distributed to a variety of laws. Of greater importance, particularly the new Federal Constitution of 1999, the Code of Obligations, the Labour Code as well as in the public sector, the Federal Personnel Act.
In German history, a Reichsexekution was an imperial or federal intervention against a member state, using military force if necessary. The instrument of the Reichsexekution was constitutionally available to the central governments of the Holy Roman Empire (800–1806), the German Empire of 1848–1849, the German Empire of 1871–1918, the Weimar Republic (1918–1933) and Nazi Germany (1933–1945). Under the German Confederation (1815–1866) and the North German Confederation (1867–1871), the same right belonged to the confederal government and is called Bundesexekution.
In Switzerland a distinction is made between Social assistance in the broader sense and social assistance in the narrower sense.
Autumn Crisis or November Crisis is the name given to a political-military conflict in Germany in 1850. In this conflict, the ultra-conservative Austrian Empire led those German states that wanted to restore the German Confederation after the revolution of 1848-1849, while Prussia wanted to create a new federal-state. This almost led to war in Germany, which was finally avoided by Prussia's backing down.
The militia system, also known as the militia principle, is a common organizational principle in Swiss public life. In the Swiss model of society, the militia system forms a central pillar alongside direct democracy, federalism and concordance.
