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The feminine style of management is a management style generally characterized by more feminine quality soft skills and behaviors such as empathy, effective communication, and a generally more democratic or team-styled work environment. The style is a growing trend within businesses and is characterized by a form of transformational leadership style. The feminine style of management, although characterized by traits commonly labeled as feminine, is not a style of management that is only used by females; it is also a style which has been found beneficial for particular types of businesses and organizations.
Beginning with textile mills and the shoe-making industry of post-revolutionary America, the first real explosion of women in a general workforce, whether at home or manufacturing, came at the turn of the century. In World War I, many women entered the workforce as a high population of men served in the war. As men returned from the war and a falling economy led to the Great Depression, women suffered displacement. During World War II, there was a similar growth of women in business that had been previously reserved for men. The combination of a better economy and changing social norms led many women's roles and functions in business to steadily increase following World War II.
In the 1970s, feminist authors denied or minimized the differences between men and women to establish that women had similar talents to men and should have equal labor opportunities. In Schutlz v. Wheaton Glass Co., a U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that jobs held by men must be "substantially equal" but not "identical" to fall under the protection of the Equal Pay Act, and that it is therefore illegal for employers to change the job titles of women workers in order to pay them less than men.
However, as the 1980s began, differences were more emphasized and noted as a means of progression due to the management style differences that came of feminine values and ways of behaving, feeling, and thinking. [1]
In 1991, women represented 45% of all managerial positions. [2] Currently, although the feminine management style can be found being utilized throughout organizations internationally, barriers to acceptance of this management style include stereotypes, mentoring and networking availability, workplace discrimination, family related issues, and funding availability. [3] However, the rise in female leaders is a result of changing theories and practices of leadership.
Reasons a systematic theory of gender and organizations is necessary: [4]
In addition to the above reasons, Acker adds that it is necessary to examine feminine styles of management within theories of gendered organizations because gendering occurs in at least five different interacting processes. [4]
Within the three main types of managerial styles, studies have examined differences in masculine and feminine styles. The first is the task management style, or how much a leader initiates, organizes, and/or defines work activities and processes. The second style, an interpersonal based style, is a style where the leader builds morale, relationships, satisfaction, and commitment in the organization. Lastly, the third is the group decision making style, where the leader encourages a participative, democratic approach [5]
Some studies find differences between male and female task accomplishment styles and interpersonal styles. Males tended to be more task-oriented, while females tended to be more relationship-oriented. These differences, however, have been observed only in men and women subjects of laboratory experiments, that is, people asked to speculate how they would behave if they were leaders. Management has traditionally been male dominated and constructed in masculine terms. Present ideas involving femininity in management include transforming places of work into relation-oriented, flexible, and humane institutions. [6]
Differences disappear in studies where actual managers are compared: most conclude that women do not behave differently from men in the same or similar kind of leadership position. Moreover, experienced women managers show no differences in leadership abilities from experienced male managers. These women, in fact, are likely to more closely resemble their male counterparts in drive, skills, temperament, and competitiveness, than the average woman in the population. [5] Anne Cummings stated, ""The notion of what makes an effective leader is changing, and you will find both [traditionally defined] ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ components." [7] In order for women to make an impact within an organization as an executive, they need to be aware of their leadership styles and strengths. [7]
In 1990, Alice Eagly and Johnson conducted a study on gender and leadership and found results they later emphasized with supporting meta-analysis data. [8] Specifically, in 1992 and 1995, researchers Eagly and Johnson also conducted meta-analysis on the effectiveness and evaluation, respectively, of differing management styles. The results showed that the main difference in management styles in men and women were that women are more democratic, while men were found to generally be more autocratic. However, the studies show little evidence that would suggest males and females differ in their leadership effectiveness. [9] [10] This means that women tend to be more focused on encouraging participation and involving their workforce in business decisions, while men are more focused on encouraging performance and driving towards tangible production.
In 2003, a meta-analysis was conducted by Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, and Van Engen that compared male and female managers on measures of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles; their findings emphasized the results of their previous study. The meta-analysis study showed that women were slightly more likely than men to exercise a transformational leadership style. [11]
This is a style of management that is likely to be used by coaches, teachers, and other individuals focused on developing subordinates. The transformational leadership encourages participation and creative problem solving. Eagly proposes that the transformational style of management is likely more advantageous for women to employ however. Men were shown to be more likely to critique their employees and be less interactive, in contrast to the women who utilized a more "hands-on" approach.
In contrast, research in the past few decades shows that these results are only averages. Men and Women do not show a significant difference in these management styles, only slight differences. Some men proved to use more feminine styles, while some women proved to use more masculine styles. Eagly states that "the sex differences are small because the leader role itself carries a lot of weight in determining people's behavior."
In 2005, a year-long study conducted by Caliper, a Princeton, New Jersey–based management consulting firm, and Aurora, a London-based organization that advances women, identified a number of characteristics that distinguish women leaders from men when it comes to qualities of leadership: [12]
"Women leaders are more assertive and persuasive, have a stronger need to get things done and are more willing to take risks than male leaders....Women leaders were also found to be more empathetic and flexible, as well as stronger in interpersonal skills than their male counterparts....enabling them to read situations accurately and take information in from all sides....These women leaders are able to bring others around to their point of view....because they genuinely understand and care about where others are coming from....so that the people they are leading feel more understood, supported and valued."
These findings were summarized into four specific statements about women's leadership qualities: "(1) Women leaders are more persuasive than their male counterparts, (2) When feeling the sting of rejection, women leaders learn from adversity and carry on with an 'I'll show you' attitude, (3) Women leaders demonstrate an inclusive, team-building leadership style of problem solving and decision making, (4) Women leaders are more likely to ignore rules and take risks." [12]
BET's CEO, Debra L. Lee, explains that it is easy to generalize the differences in gender leadership styles as "women do it this way, and men do it that way." Instead of simply generalizing, Debra Lee asserts that it is important to discuss these differences so that women don't feel uncomfortable managing differently from men. During this interview, she further states that we should encourage young women to climb the corporate ladder. Lee explained that her hardest lesson was learning to follow her gut when others challenged it, but that lesson has truly paid off. She insists that we encourage young women to do the same. [13]
It's vital for women to embrace these differences. During a 2006 speech given by Dr. Musimbi Kanyoro, the World YWCA Secretary General, she explained that the attitudes toward leadership are changing and what women offer is essential. She stated: "Domination as a leadership style is becoming less and less popular. There is a new growing appreciation of....those traits that women use to keep families together and to organize volunteers to unite and make change in the shared life of communities. These newly admired leadership qualities of shared leadership; nurturance and doing good for others are today not only sought after but also indeed needed to make a difference in the world....A feminine way of leading includes helping the world to understand and be principled about values that really matter." [12]
More and more female leaders are found within society today. In addition to the thousands of women who now receive graduate and doctoral degrees, many hold managerial positions within companies, and females hold 45% of all managerial posts. [14]
Today, many nonprofit organizations take a feminine style of leadership approach when handling employees. These particular organizations tend to encourage participation among group members, show flexibility, and maintain a non-hierarchical work environment. [15]
Leaders that take on this style tend to show genuine care and understanding towards their employees. The empathy they have for others enables their employees to feel recognized and valued within the organization. These leaders are also known for their communication skills and tendency to listen to multiple perspective before making decisions. [16] Their desire to use team-building activities creates a sense of community within organizations, which in turn helps to meet overall goals. [17] An example of a company using team-building, genuinely understand its employees needs, and embracing femininity is Mary Kay Cosmetics. This company strives to treat employees as individuals and help them reach their personal goals. When employees meet particular sales goals they are rewarded with things they desire, such as pink Cadillacs and diamonds. These actions show employees that they are valued and understood, which leads to a positive corporate culture. [18]
Sung-Joo Kim, chairman and chief executive of luxury-goods company MCM Worldwide, is an example of a woman using the feminine style of management to help successfully run a company. Kim's sensitivity and openness towards employees gives her an advantage over other luxury-good corporations. Kim has to find a balance between her sensitivity and still maintaining order and a level of toughness. Kim grew up in a patriarchal Korean household and her experiences led her to strive to prove to others that femininity and power are not mutually exclusive and it is quite possible to be a nurturing woman and still run a successful business. [19]
According to Esther Wachs Book, "A new breed of leader is emerging, and that breed is female." She contends that women, such as Meg Whitman of eBay and Marcy Carsey of Carsey-Werner, succeed because they embody seven uniquely female abilities: they can sell their visions; they are not afraid to reinvent the rules; they are focused on achievement; they show courage under fire; they turn challenges into opportunities; they are aware of customer preferences; and they maximize what Book calls "high touch" in an era of high tech. [20]
A gender role, or sex role, is a set of socially accepted behaviors and attitudes deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity.
Leadership, is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or organization to "lead", influence, or guide other individuals, teams, or organizations.
Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender.
A glass ceiling is a metaphor usually applied to women, used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy. The metaphor was first used by feminists in reference to barriers in the careers of high-achieving women. It was coined by Marilyn Loden during a speech in 1978.
In ethology and social science, male bonding or male friendship is the formation of close personal relationships, and patterns of friendship or cooperation between males. Male bonding is a form of homosociality, or social connection between individuals of the same gender. Male bonding can occur through various contexts and activities that build emotional closeness, trust, and camaraderie. Male bonding is an important feature of men’s social functioning and can provide benefits including emotional support and intimacy, shared identity, and personal fulfillment contributing to men’s mental health and wellbeing.
In industrial and organizational psychology, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is a person's voluntary commitment within an organization or company that is not part of his or her contractual tasks. Organizational citizenship behavior has been studied since the late 1970s. Over the past three decades, interest in these behaviors has increased substantially.
Sex differences in psychology are differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors. Differences have been found in a variety of fields such as mental health, cognitive abilities, personality, emotion, sexuality, friendship, and tendency towards aggression. Such variation may be innate, learned, or both. Modern research attempts to distinguish between these causes and to analyze any ethical concerns raised. Since behavior is a result of interactions between nature and nurture, researchers are interested in investigating how biology and environment interact to produce such differences, although this is often not possible.
Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology, sociobiology, or feminist studies. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors. The nature or motive of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor. Gendered profiling might affect the reported crime rates.
Transformational leadership is a theory of leadership when a leader's behaviors influence their followers and inspire them to perform beyond their perceived capabilities. Transformational leadership inspires people to achieve unexpected or remarkable results. Transformational leaders work with teams or followers beyond their immediate self-interests to identify necessary change. They create a vision to guide the change through influence and inspiration. These changes are executed in tandem with committed group members and involve self-interests. This elevates the follower's ideals, maturity levels, and concerns for achievement. Transformational leadership is an integral part of the Full Range Leadership Model and gives workers autonomy over specific jobs, as well as the authority to make decisions once they have been trained. This induces a positive change in the followers' attitudes and the organization. Transformational leaders typically perform four distinct behaviors, known as The 4 I's. These behaviors are inspirational motivation, idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.
Sex differences in education are a type of sex discrimination in the education system affecting both men and women during and after their educational experiences. Men are more likely to be literate on a global average, although higher literacy scores for women are prevalent in many countries. Women are more likely to achieve a tertiary education degree compared to men of the same age. Men tended to receive more education than women in the past, but the gender gap in education has reversed in recent decades in most Western countries and many non-Western countries.
Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on social structures and gender. Feminist psychology critiques historical psychological research as done from a male perspective with the view that males are the norm. Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.
Queen bee syndrome is a social phenomenon where women in positions of authority or power treat subordinate females worse than males, purely based on gender. It was first defined by three researchers: Graham Staines, Carol Tavris, and Toby E. Jayaratne in 1973.
Expectation states theory is a social psychological theory first proposed by Joseph Berger and his colleagues that explains how expected competence forms the basis for status hierarchies in small groups. The theory's best known branch, status characteristics theory, deals with the role that certain pieces of social information play in organizing these hierarchies. More recently, sociologist Cecilia Ridgeway has utilized the theory to explain how beliefs about status become attached to different social groups and the implications this has for social inequality.
Role congruity theory proposes that a group will be positively evaluated when its characteristics are recognized as aligning with that group's typical social roles. Conversely, the stereotype fit hypothesis suggests that group members will experience discrimination in different social roles or positions to the extent that their group stereotypically does not have characteristics associated with success in the position. For instance, women may not be considered a good fit for a managerial position if being aggressive is seen as a characteristic of a successful manager. Due to stereotype fit, men may be considered more qualified for the position and are not only more likely to be hired, but are also more likely to be promoted as well.
Gendered sexuality is the way in which gender and sexuality are often viewed as likened constructs, whereby the role of gender in an individual's life is informed by and impacts others' perceptions of their sexuality. For example, both the male and female genders are subject to assumptions of heterosexuality. If a man were to behave in feminine ways, his heterosexuality would be doubted, and individuals may assume that he is gay.
Sex and gender differences in leadership have been studied from a variety of perspectives, including personality traits, sex and gender roles, and intersectional identities, to name a few. Scholars from fields such as leadership studies, management, psychology, and sociology have taken interest. The terms sex and gender, and their definitions, have been used inconsistently and sometimes interchangeably in the leadership and management fields, leading to some confusion. Most scholarship has explored topics relating to women and leadership, rather than to men, intersex people, or transgender or non-binary people.
Sex differences in humans have been studied in a variety of fields. Sex determination generally occurs by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome in the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the human genome. Phenotypic sex refers to an individual's sex as determined by their internal and external genitalia and expression of secondary sex characteristics.
Alice H. Eagly is the James Padilla Chair of Arts and Sciences Emerita and emerita professor of psychology at Northwestern University. She is also a fellow at the Institute of Policy Research at Northwestern University. Her primary research focus is social psychology, as well as personality psychology and Industrial Organizational Psychology. She was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 2022.
Gender roles are culturally influenced stereotypes which create expectations for appropriate behavior for males and females. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age four. Children between 3 and 6 months can form distinctions between male and female faces. By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with females and males, like a hammer with males or scarf with females. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, the environment, and society. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender-specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way an individual forms relationships later on in life.
Sex differences in cognition are widely studied in the current scientific literature. Biological and genetic differences in combination with environment and culture have resulted in the cognitive differences among males and females. Among biological factors, hormones such as testosterone and estrogen may play some role mediating these differences. Among differences of diverse mental and cognitive abilities, the largest or most well known are those relating to spatial abilities, social cognition and verbal skills and abilities.