Alice Eagly

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Social role theory

Eagly developed the social role theory which attributes current sex differences to the labor division between men and women. [8] While conducting research pertaining to the Social Role Theory, Eagly was a member of an observation team that explored stereotype content. To begin this research, they collected data on the development of stereotypes through observations and preliminary research of participants' beliefs. These beliefs were then compared to various members of social groups. [9]

Within this theory, Eagly compares gender differences and stereotypes, which have the potential to lead to prejudice. Prejudices are formed when individuals hold stereotypes about a social group that does not agree with the attributes that are typically perceived as being required for success in certain social roles. [10] Eagly uses much of her research to show that discrimination happens when the individual steps outside of the given stereotype ascribed to their group. [11] This is a basis for much of her research on gender discrimination and stereotypes.

According to Eagly, an attitude is made of evaluation, attitude object, and tendency. Evaluation encompasses all aspects of reacting inwardly or outwardly and to react based upon a believed feeling or emotion. [12] An attitude object is any thing that can cause a reaction in an individual. Tendency is formed through past experiences. Each individual has their own attitude based on these three components that resonate with other's attitudes in order to form similar patterns of thought and stereotypes.

One of her most important [13] contributions to the field of psychology is her theory on role congruity, the belief that prejudice arises when one social groups' stereotype mismatches their valued success in other social roles, specifically among men and women. That is, society views one social groups role to be exclusive to that group in particular, and that venturing outside this could not be a successful endeavor, thus creating prejudicial attitudes. [14] Eagly explores this idea in her research to show that the attributes ascribed to the group are not necessarily negative, but just different from that which is assumed of the group. [15]

A stereotype that Eagly spent time studying was physical beauty and levels of attractiveness. This stereotype is composed of physical attractiveness, media content, and social attention given to those with certain outward characteristics. Due to the fact that society as a whole has been seen through studies as more accepting of physically attractive individuals, the stereotype has formed that they also hold characteristics and attributes that are positive and favorable. [16]

Eagly has contributed several notable studies to the body of research on sex differences. For example, her work in the area of mate-preferences showed that men and women who held more traditional gender ideologies preferred more gender stereotypical qualities in a partner. Women with more traditional attitudes looked for older mates while more traditional men sought younger mates compared to males and females who reported less traditional gender ideologies. [17] In an additional study, Eagly found that participant's mate-preferences could be shifted by asking them to see themselves in different marital roles. When instructed to envision oneself in the provider role, participants placed a greater emphasis on a mate's homemaker skills and the preferred age for the mate decreased. She also found, however, that changing one's expected marital role could not eliminate gender differences in preference for earning potential; women consistently looked for a greater earning potential in a mate compared to men. [18]

Other research that Eagly participated in looks at women who were highly educated and their anticipated marital roles. This study shows that these women anticipated inequality in areas such as employment hours, salary, housework and childcare in comparison to the amount of work that they expected their husbands to do. Further research in this study also shows that women who anticipated greater employment opportunity showed a general decrease in gender role assumptions, but also felt that they felt their relationships with their family and emotional well-being would be affected adversely. [19]

This theory emphasizes the social component of sex differences. It operates around the idea of correspondence inference, which is the tendency to ascribe a person's behavior to her or his disposition or personality and to underestimate the extent to which situational factors elicited the behavior. Eagly suggests that men and women were constrained to certain roles in the work force and then assumed to embody the psychological characteristics of those roles without exception. [20]

Women and men can be classified by differing prosocial behaviors. These behaviors are categorized as communion or agency. Communal traits are identified as concerned with others, friendly, unselfish and emotionally expressive; these communal traits are more commonly associated with females. Agentic traits are identified as dominant, competitive, and assertive, and are associated more commonly with males. [21]

Feminism

According to Eagly's studies, she refers to the differences found in gender stated as male or female due to the standard XX or XY chromosomes present. When working with the feminist theory, Eagly introduces the biosocial theory that considers the division of labor as a core principle. [22] She also believes that when considering feminism and science there are not specifically congruent ideas that point to sameness when considering the biological differences between men and women. Eagly stands for accuracy and interpreting scientific data in order to be used when making these comparisons. [23]

When it comes to leadership while considering feminism, neither men nor women have an inherited advantage when it comes to style or effectiveness. There are many traits that are associated with being a good leader that may be classified as feminine characteristics such as kindness and concern for others. While these traits may describe the feminine attitude with more depth, they may also be a shortcoming. Eagly states that women must have these caring traits while also be willing to show confidence and assertion, which many find to be incompatible. [24]

Selected works

Honors and awards

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender role</span> Social role associated with gender

A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity, although there are exceptions and variations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prejudice</span> Attitudes based on preconceived categories

Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived evaluation or classification of another person based on that person's perceived personal characteristics, such as political affiliation, sex, gender, gender identity, beliefs, values, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race, ethnicity, language, nationality, culture, complexion, beauty, height, body weight, occupation, wealth, education, criminality, sport-team affiliation, music tastes or other perceived characteristics.

In the psychology of self, one's self-concept is a collection of beliefs about oneself. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer to the question "Who am I?".

Sociosexuality, sometimes called sociosexual orientation, is the individual difference in the willingness to engage in sexual activity outside of a committed relationship. Individuals who are more restricted sociosexually are less willing to engage in casual sex; they prefer greater love, commitment and emotional closeness before having sex with romantic partners. Individuals who are more unrestricted sociosexually are more willing to have casual sex and are more comfortable engaging in sex without love, commitment or closeness.

Sex differences in psychology are differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors. Differences have been found in a variety of fields such as mental health, cognitive abilities, personality, emotion, sexuality, and tendency towards aggression. Such variation may be innate, learned, or both. Modern research attempts to distinguish between these causes and to analyze any ethical concerns raised. Since behavior is a result of interactions between nature and nurture, researchers are interested in investigating how biology and environment interact to produce such differences, although this is often not possible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">David Buss</span> American evolutionary psychologist

David Michael Buss is an American evolutionary psychologist at the University of Texas at Austin, researching human sex differences in mate selection. He is considered one of the founders of evolutionary psychology.

Sandra Ruth Lipsitz Bem was an American psychologist known for her works in androgyny and gender studies. Her pioneering work on gender roles, gender polarization and gender stereotypes led directly to more equal employment opportunities for women in the United States.

Laurie A. Rudman is a social psychology feminist professor as well as the Director of the Rutgers University Social Cognition Laboratory who has contributed a great deal of research to studies on implicit and explicit attitudes and stereotypes, stereotype maintenance processes, and the media's effects on attitudes, stereotypes, and behavior on the Feminism movement. She was awarded the 1994 Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Prize for her research examining the effects of sexist advertising on men's behavior toward female job applicants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stereotype</span> Generalized but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

In social psychology, a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary; it can be, for example, an expectation about the group's personality, preferences, appearance or ability. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information, but can sometimes be accurate.

Feminist psychology is a form of psychology centered on social structures and gender. Feminist psychology critiques historical psychological research as done from a male perspective with the view that males are the norm. Feminist psychology is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.

Ambivalent sexism is a theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components: "hostile sexism" (HS) and "benevolent sexism" (BS). Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about a gender. Benevolent sexism represents evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive, but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly. For the most part, psychologists have studied hostile forms of sexism. However, theorists using the theoretical framework of ambivalent sexism have found extensive empirical evidence for both varieties. The theory has largely been developed by social psychologists Peter Glick and Susan Fiske.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Expectation states theory</span>

Expectation states theory is a social psychological theory first proposed by Joseph Berger and his colleagues that explains how expected competence forms the basis for status hierarchies in small groups. The theory's best known branch, status characteristics theory, deals with the role that certain pieces of social information play in organizing these hierarchies. More recently, sociologist Cecilia Ridgeway has utilized the theory to explain how beliefs about status become attached to different social groups and the implications this has for social inequality.

Within social psychology self-stereotyping is a process described as part of social identity theory (SIT) and, more specifically, self-categorization theory (SCT). Self-stereotyping occurs when an individual integrates commonly held characterizations of an in-group into their self-concept.

The women-are-wonderful effect is the phenomenon found in psychological and sociological research which suggests that people associate more positive attributes with women when compared to men. This bias reflects an emotional bias toward women as a general case. The phrase was coined by Alice Eagly and Antonio Mladinic in 1994 after finding that both male and female participants tend to assign positive traits to women, with female participants showing a far more pronounced bias. Positive traits were assigned to men by participants of both genders, but to a far lesser degree.

Role congruity theory proposes that a group will be positively evaluated when its characteristics are recognized as aligning with that group's typical social roles. Conversely, the stereotype fit hypothesis suggests that group members will experience discrimination in different social roles or positions to the extent that their group stereotypically does not have characteristics associated with success in the position. For instance, women may not be considered a good fit for a managerial position if being aggressive is seen as a characteristic of a successful manager. Due to stereotype fit, men may be considered more qualified for the position and are not only more likely to be hired, but are also more likely to be promoted as well.

In social identity theory, an implicit bias or implicit stereotype, is the pre-reflective attribution of particular qualities by an individual to a member of some social out group.

Gendered sexuality is the way in which gender and sexuality are often viewed as likened constructs, whereby the role of gender in an individual's life is informed by and impacts others' perceptions of their sexuality. For example, both the male and female genders are subject to assumptions of heterosexuality. If a man were to behave in feminine ways, his heterosexuality would be doubted, and individuals may assume that he is gay.

Gender roles are culturally influenced stereotypes which create expectations for appropriate behavior for males and females. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age four. Children between 3 and 6 months can form distinctions between male and female faces. By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with females and males, like a hammer with males or scarf with females. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, environment, and society. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender-specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way an individual forms relationships later on in life.

Strategic pluralism is a theory in evolutionary psychology regarding human mating strategies that suggests women have evolved to evaluate men in two categories: whether they are reliable long term providers, and whether they contain high quality genes. The theory of strategic pluralism was proposed by Steven Gangestad and Jeffry Simpson, two professors of psychology at the University of New Mexico and Texas A&M University, respectively.

In social psychology, a metastereotype is a stereotype that members of one group have about the way in which they are stereotypically viewed by members of another group. In other words, it is a stereotype about a stereotype. They have been shown to have adverse effects on individuals that hold them, including on their levels of anxiety in interracial conversations. Meta-stereotypes held by African Americans regarding the stereotypes White Americans have about them have been found to be largely both negative and accurate. People portray meta-stereotypes of their ingroup more positively when talking to a member of an outgroup than to a fellow member of their ingroup.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Profile". Psychology's Feminist Voices. Archived from the original on May 11, 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Emerita Professor Alice H. Eagly elected to the National Academy of Sciences". Northwestern University. May 9, 2022. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  3. ↑ "2022 NAS Election".
  4. ↑ "Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions: Alice H. Eagly". American Psychologist. 64 (8): 642–658. November 2009. doi:10.1037/a0017804. PMID   19899858.
  5. 1 2 3 "Curriculum Vita: Alice Hendrickson Eagly" (PDF). Retrieved 5 April 2013.
  6. ↑ "ALICE H. EAGLY TO RECEIVE HONORARY DOCTORATE FROM ERASMUS UNIVERSITY". Erasmus University media and Public Relations Department. Archived from the original on 2013-07-03. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
  7. 1 2 "Alice Eagly Oral History Interviews: Audio & Transcripts: Oral History: Research: Tobias Leadership Center: Indiana University". Tobias Leadership Center. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  8. ↑ Aries, Elizabeth (1996). Men and Women in Interaction: Reconsidering the Differences . New York: Oxford University Press. p.  199. ISBN   978-0-19-510358-8.
  9. ↑ Koenig, Anne M.; Eagly, Alice H. (2014). "Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups' roles shape stereotypes". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 107 (3): 371–392. doi:10.1037/a0037215. PMID   25133722.
  10. ↑ Eagly, Alice H.; Karau, Steven J. (2002). "Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders". Psychological Review. 109 (3): 573–598. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573. PMID   12088246. S2CID   1283792.
  11. ↑ Eagly, Alice H.; Diekman, Amanda B. (December 2012). "Prejudice in context departs from attitudes toward groups". Behavioral and Brain Sciences . 35 (6): 431–432. doi:10.1017/S0140525X12001185. PMID   23164355.
  12. ↑ Eagly, Alice H.; Chaiken, Shelly (2007). "The Advantages of an Inclusive Definition of Attitude". Social Cognition. 25 (5): 582–602. doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.582.
  13. ↑ Koenig, Anne M.; Eagly, Alice H. (1 January 2014). "Extending Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice to Men and Women With Sex-Typed Mental Illnesses". Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 36 (1): 70–82. doi:10.1080/01973533.2013.856789. S2CID   142709404.
  14. ↑ Eagly, Alice (2005). "Achieving relational authenticity in leadership: Does gender matter?". The Leadership Quarterly . 16 (3): 459–474. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.007.
  15. ↑ Koenig, Anne M.; Eagly, Alice H.; Mitchell, Abigail A.; Ristikari, Tiina (2011). "Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms". Psychological Bulletin . 137 (4): 616–642. doi:10.1037/a0023557. PMID   21639606.
  16. ↑ Eagly, Alice H.; Ashmore, Richard D.; Makhijani, Mona G.; Longo, Laura C. (July 1991). "What Is Beautiful Is Good, But...: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research on the Physical Attractiveness Stereotype". Psychological Bulletin. 110 (1): 109–128. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.109. ProQuest   614298842.
  17. ↑ Eastwick, Paul W.; Eagly, Alice H.; Glick, Peter; Johannesen-Schmidt, Mary C.; Fiske, Susan T.; Blum, Ashley M. B.; Eckes, Thomas; Freiburger, Patricia; et al. (2006). "Is Traditional Gender Ideology Associated with Sex-Typed Mate Preferences? A Test in Nine Nations". Sex Roles. 54 (9–10): 603. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9027-x. S2CID   14766212.
  18. ↑ Eagly, A. H.; Eastwick, P. W.; Johannesen-Schmidt, M. (2009). "Possible Selves in Marital Roles: The Impact of the Anticipated Division of Labor on the Mate Preferences of Women and Men". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 35 (4): 403–14. doi:10.1177/0146167208329696. PMID   19164705. S2CID   45583087.
  19. ↑ Fetterolf, Janell; Eagly, Alice H. (July 2011). "Do young women expect gender equality in their future lives? An answer from a possible selves experiment". Sex Roles. 65 (1–2): 83–93. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9981-9. S2CID   145427862.
  20. ↑ Eagly, Alice H. (1997). "Sex differences in social behavior: Comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology". American Psychologist. 52 (12): 1380–3. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1380.b. PMID   9414607.
  21. ↑ Eagly, Alice H. (2009). "The his and hers of prosocial behavior: An examination of the social psychology of gender". American Psychologist. 64 (8): 644–658. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.64.8.644. PMID   19899859.
  22. ↑ Eagly, Alice H.; Wood, Wendy (November 2013). "Feminism and Evolutionary Psychology: Moving Forward". Sex Roles. 69 (9–10): 549–556. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0315-y. S2CID   143559092. ProQuest   1447470636.
  23. ↑ "Feminist Voices - Alice Eagly". Feminist Voices. Retrieved 2022-05-04.
  24. ↑ Eagly, Alice H. (2007). "Female Leadership Advantage and Disadvantage: Resolving the Contradictions". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 31 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00326.x. S2CID   144210901.
Alice H. Eagly
Born
Alice Hendrickson

1938 (age 84–85)
Los Angeles, California
OccupationProfessor
AwardsDistinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the American Psychological Association
Gold Medal for Life Achievement in the Science of Social Psychology from the American Psychological Foundation
Raymond A. Katzell Award from the Society for Industrial and Organization Psychology
2011 Berlin Prize from the American Academy in Berlin
Academic background
Education Harvard University
Alma mater University of Michigan (M.A., Ph.D.)
Doctoral advisor Herbert Kelman
International
National
Academics
Other
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