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Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally, resulting in the species becoming increasingly underpopulated in that area. Overfishing can occur in water bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, wetlands, rivers, lakes or oceans, and can result in resource depletion, reduced biological growth rates and low biomass levels. Sustained overfishing can lead to critical depensation, where the fish population is no longer able to sustain itself. Some forms of overfishing, such as the overfishing of sharks, has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems. Types of overfishing include: growth overfishing, recruitment overfishing, ecosystem overfishing.
The goal of fisheries management is to produce sustainable biological, environmental and socioeconomic benefits from renewable aquatic resources. Wild fisheries are classified as renewable when the organisms of interest produce an annual biological surplus that with judicious management can be harvested without reducing future productivity. Fishery management employs activities that protect fishery resources so sustainable exploitation is possible, drawing on fisheries science and possibly including the precautionary principle.
The mesopelagiczone, also known as the middle pelagic or twilight zone, is the part of the pelagic zone that lies between the photic epipelagic and the aphotic bathypelagic zones. It is defined by light, and begins at the depth where only 1% of incident light reaches and ends where there is no light; the depths of this zone are between approximately 200 to 1,000 meters below the ocean surface.
The Kuroshio Current, also known as the Black or Japan Current or the Black Stream, is a north-flowing, warm ocean current on the west side of the North Pacific Ocean basin. It was named for the deep blue appearance of its waters. Similar to the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, the Kuroshio is a powerful western boundary current that transports warm equatorial water poleward and forms the western limb of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. Off the East Coast of Japan, it merges with the Oyashio Current to form the North Pacific Current.
In climatology, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) is a collaborative framework designed to improve knowledge of climate change. It was organized in 1995 by the Working Group on Coupled Modelling (WGCM) of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). It is developed in phases to foster the climate model improvements but also to support national and international assessments of climate change. A related project is the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP) for global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models (GCMs).
The Scophthalmidae are a family of flatfish found in the North Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Black Sea. Fish of this family are known commonly as turbots, though this name can refer specifically to Scophthalmus maximus, as well. Some common names found in species of this family are turbots, windowpanes, and brills.
The Sea Around Us is an international research initiative and a member of the Global Fisheries Cluster at the University of British Columbia. The Sea Around Us assesses the impact of fisheries on the marine ecosystems of the world and offers mitigating solutions to a range of stakeholders. To achieve this, the Sea Around Us presents fisheries and fisheries-related data at spatial scales that have ecological and policy relevance, such as by Exclusive Economic Zones, High Seas areas, Large Marine Ecosystems and Ecosystems.
Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.
The environmental impact of fishing includes issues such as the availability of fish, overfishing, fisheries, and fisheries management; as well as the impact of industrial fishing on other elements of the environment, such as bycatch. These issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. According to a 2019 FAO report, global production of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic animals has continued to grow and reached 172.6 million tonnes in 2017, with an increase of 4.1 percent compared with 2016. There is a growing gap between the supply of fish and demand, due in part to world population growth.
The Future of Marine Animal Populations (FMAP) project was one of the core projects of the international Census of Marine Life (2000–2010). FMAP's mission was to describe and synthesize globally changing patterns of species abundance, distribution, and diversity, and to model the effects of fishing, climate change and other key variables on those patterns. This work was done across ocean realms and with an emphasis on understanding past changes and predicting future scenarios.
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Fishing down the food web is the process whereby fisheries in a given ecosystem, "having depleted the large predatory fish on top of the food web, turn to increasingly smaller species, finally ending up with previously spurned small fish and invertebrates".
A planktivore is an aquatic organism that feeds on planktonic food, including zooplankton and phytoplankton. Planktivorous organisms encompass a range of some of the planet's smallest to largest multicellular animals in both the present day and in the past billion years; basking sharks and copepods are just two examples of giant and microscopic organisms that feed upon plankton. Planktivory can be an important mechanism of top-down control that contributes to trophic cascades in aquatic and marine systems. There is a tremendous diversity of feeding strategies and behaviors that planktivores utilize to capture prey. Some planktivores utilize tides and currents to migrate between estuaries and coastal waters; other aquatic planktivores reside in lakes or reservoirs where diverse assemblages of plankton are present, or migrate vertically in the water column searching for prey. Planktivore populations can impact the abundance and community composition of planktonic species through their predation pressure, and planktivore migrations facilitate nutrient transport between benthic and pelagic habitats.
The Nereus Program is a global interdisciplinary initiative between the Nippon Foundation and the University of British Columbia that was created to further our knowledge of how best to attain sustainability for our world’s oceans. In addition to the Nippon Foundation and UBC, the program partners with University of Cambridge, Duke University, Princeton University, Stockholm University, United Nations Environment Program-World Conservation Monitoring Centre and Utrecht University. The program is built around three core objectives: to conduct collaborative ocean research across the natural and social sciences, to develop an interdisciplinary network of experts that can engage in discussion of complex and multifaceted questions of ocean sustainability, and to transfer these ideas to practical solutions in global policy forums.
William Cheung is a marine biologist, well known for his research on the impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems and fisheries. He currently works as director of science of the Nereus Program and is also an associate professor at the University of British Columbia, as well as Leader at the UBC Changing Ocean Research Unit.
Compared to terrestrial environments, marine environments have biomass pyramids which are inverted at the base. In particular, the biomass of consumers is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton which grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, many significant terrestrial primary producers, such as mature forests, grow and reproduce slowly, so a much larger mass is needed to achieve the same rate of primary production.
Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.
A marine coastal ecosystem is a marine ecosystem which occurs where the land meets the ocean. Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition. They are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity.
Elizabeth A. Fulton, also known as Beth Fulton, is an Australian ecosystem modeller, who was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science in 2022. She is a Research Group Leader at CSIRO Oceans & Atmosphere in Hobart, Tasmania.
References
- 1 2 Cheung, William W. L. (2019). Predicting Future Oceans : Sustainability of Ocean and Human Systems Amidst Global Environmental Change. Yoshitaka Ota, Andrés. Cisneros-Montemayor. San Diego: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-817946-8. OCLC 1114972202.
- ↑ Hempel, S.; Frieler, K.; Warszawski, L.; Schewe, J.; Piontek, F. (2013-07-31). "A trend-preserving bias correction – the ISI-MIP approach". Earth System Dynamics. 4 (2): 219–236. Bibcode:2013ESD.....4..219H. doi: 10.5194/esd-4-219-2013 . ISSN 2190-4979.
- ↑ Tittensor, Derek P.; Eddy, Tyler D.; Lotze, Heike K.; Galbraith, Eric D.; Cheung, William; Barange, Manuel; Blanchard, Julia L.; Bopp, Laurent; Bryndum-Buchholz, Andrea; Büchner, Matthias; Bulman, Catherine (2018-04-13). "A protocol for the intercomparison of marine fishery and ecosystem models: Fish-MIP v1.0". Geoscientific Model Development. 11 (4): 1421–1442. Bibcode:2018GMD....11.1421T. doi: 10.5194/gmd-11-1421-2018 . hdl: 10261/165167 . ISSN 1991-959X.
- ↑ Bryndum-Buchholz, Andrea; Prentice, Faelan; Tittensor, Derek P.; Blanchard, Julia L.; Cheung, William W.L.; Christensen, Villy; Galbraith, Eric D.; Maury, Olivier; Lotze, Heike K. (2020-01-01). Favaro, Brett (ed.). "Differing marine animal biomass shifts under 21st century climate change between Canada's three oceans". FACETS. 5 (1): 105–122. doi: 10.1139/facets-2019-0035 . ISSN 2371-1671. S2CID 216303864.
- ↑ Kotu, Vijay; Deshpande, Bala (2019), "Data Science Process", Data Science, Elsevier, pp. 19–37, doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-814761-0.00002-2 , ISBN 978-0-12-814761-0, S2CID 117469594
- ↑ Predictive Analytics and Data Mining. Elsevier. 2015. doi:10.1016/c2014-0-00329-2. ISBN 978-0-12-801460-8.
- ↑ "Fisheries and Marine Ecosystem Model Intercomparison (Fish-MIP) Postdoctoral Scientist | Euromarine Network". www.euromarinenetwork.eu. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ Tittensor, Derek P.; Novaglio, Camilla; Harrison, Cheryl S.; Heneghan, Ryan F.; Barrier, Nicolas; Bianchi, Daniele; Bopp, Laurent; Bryndum-Buchholz, Andrea; Britten, Gregory L.; Büchner, Matthias; Cheung, William W. L. (November 2021). "Next-generation ensemble projections reveal higher climate risks for marine ecosystems". Nature Climate Change. 11 (11): 973–981. Bibcode:2021NatCC..11..973T. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01173-9. ISSN 1758-6798. PMC 8556156 . PMID 34745348.
- ↑ "ISIMIP3b simulation round – Fisheries and Marine Ecosystems (global)". protocol.isimip.org. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ "ISIMIP3b simulation round – Fisheries and Marine Ecosystems (regional)". protocol.isimip.org. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ "Apecosm – Modelling open ocean pelagic ecosystems in the global ocean" . Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ "BOATS – Integrated Earth System Dynamics" . Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ Audzijonyte, Asta; Pethybridge, Heidi; Porobic, Javier; Gorton, Rebecca; Kaplan, Isaac; Fulton, Elizabeth A. (October 2019). Poisot, Timothée (ed.). "Atlantis : A spatially explicit end‐to‐end marine ecosystem model with dynamically integrated physics, ecology and socio‐economic modules". Methods in Ecology and Evolution. 10 (10): 1814–1819. doi: 10.1111/2041-210X.13272 . ISSN 2041-210X. S2CID 199632117.
- ↑ "Osmose – Object-oriented Simulator of Marine Ecosystems" . Retrieved 2021-11-19.
- ↑ "Compared with climate, modelling of ecosystems is at an early stage". The Economist. 2021-06-15. ISSN 0013-0613 . Retrieved 2021-10-27.
- ↑ Gómara, Iñigo; Rodríguez-Fonseca, Belén; Mohino, Elsa; Losada, Teresa; Polo, Irene; Coll, Marta (2021-02-18). "Skillful prediction of tropical Pacific fisheries provided by Atlantic Niños". bioRxiv: 2021.02.17.431587. doi:10.1101/2021.02.17.431587. hdl: 10261/230501 . S2CID 231981566.
- ↑ Pontavice, Hubert du; Gascuel, Didier; Reygondeau, Gabriel; Stock, Charles; Cheung, William W. L. (2021). "Climate-induced decrease in biomass flow in marine food webs may severely affect predators and ecosystem production". Global Change Biology. 27 (11): 2608–2622. Bibcode:2021GCBio..27.2608P. doi:10.1111/gcb.15576. ISSN 1365-2486. PMID 33660891. S2CID 232113515.
- ↑ Bryndum‐Buchholz, Andrea; Tittensor, Derek P.; Blanchard, Julia L.; Cheung, William W. L.; Coll, Marta; Galbraith, Eric D.; Jennings, Simon; Maury, Olivier; Lotze, Heike K. (2019). "Twenty-first-century climate change impacts on marine animal biomass and ecosystem structure across ocean basins". Global Change Biology. 25 (2): 459–472. Bibcode:2019GCBio..25..459B. doi:10.1111/gcb.14512. hdl: 10261/175086 . ISSN 1365-2486. PMID 30408274. S2CID 53244170.
- ↑ Bryndum-Buchholz, A; Boyce, DG; Tittensor, DP; Christensen, V; Bianchi, D; Lotze, HK (2020-08-27). "Climate-change impacts and fisheries management challenges in the North Atlantic Ocean". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 648: 1–17. Bibcode:2020MEPS..648....1B. doi: 10.3354/meps13438 . ISSN 0171-8630. S2CID 225267165.
- ↑ Boyce, Daniel G.; Lotze, Heike K.; Tittensor, Derek P.; Carozza, David A.; Worm, Boris (2020-05-06). "Future ocean biomass losses may widen socioeconomic equity gaps". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 2235. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.2235B. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15708-9. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7203146 . PMID 32376884.
- ↑ Lotze, Heike K.; Tittensor, Derek P.; Bryndum-Buchholz, Andrea; Eddy, Tyler D.; Cheung, William W. L.; Galbraith, Eric D.; Barange, Manuel; Barrier, Nicolas; Bianchi, Daniele; Blanchard, Julia L.; Bopp, Laurent (2019-06-25). "Global ensemble projections reveal trophic amplification of ocean biomass declines with climate change". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (26): 12907–12912. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11612907L. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1900194116 . ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6600926 . PMID 31186360.
