Last updated Fragments of 12th-century glossed Bible reinforcing book spine (outer cover removed), Yale Law School library
Fragmentology is the study of surviving fragments of manuscripts (mainly manuscripts from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in the case of European manuscript cultures). A manuscript fragment may consist of whole or partial leaves, typically made of parchment, conjugate pairs or sometimes gatherings of a parchment book or codex, or parts of single-leaf documents such as notarial acts. They are commonly found in book bindings, especially printed books from the 15th to the 17th centuries, used in a variety of ways such as wrappers or covers for the book, as endpapers, or cut into pieces and used to reinforce the binding. In other non-Western manuscript cultures, fragments of paper manuscripts and other materials, takes place beside parchment, including board covers that many times reused written paper.
In recent years, fragmentology has become an active part of scholarly medieval studies fueled by the abundance in institutional libraries of binding fragments that have never been studied or even catalogued. A number of symposia, websites and projects have been formed to pursue the study. In their field-defining editorial, William Duba and Christoph Flüeler note that fragmentology's "transdisciplinary nature requires the collaboration of specialists trained in a range of fields, not just paleography, codicology, and diplomatics, but also the history of the printed book, the history of libraries, musicology, art history, intellectual history, digital humanities – in sum, most historical arts dealing with content on a page."[1]
Fragments used in bookbindings
Leaves and parts of parchment leaves have been used in bindings of manuscripts since the Middle Ages. The use of manuscript fragments in bindings increased greatly at the end of the 15th century when printed books began to appear in increasing numbers, supplanting many older manuscripts.[2] The conversion of northern Europe to Protestantism and the closing of monasteries and convents resulted in the discarding of many Catholic religious and liturgical manuscripts some of which were used by bookbinders.[2] Sometimes, manuscript fragments have been removed from bookbindings either because the fragments were viewed as significant or valuable, or in the course of rebinding. Removal of these fragments destroys important context and evidence and is strongly criticized by scholars. Where it is necessary to remove such fragments, accepted practice requires they be preserved with the book and their original location recorded.
Preservation of a unique or rare text or other writing.
Preservation of early or significant script.
Evidence where a book was bound. Since medieval manuscripts generally did not travel far from where they were produced, the fact that a binding incorporates fragments of a manuscript from a known location may be evidence that the book was bound there or nearby.[3]
Evidence concerning the book binder. The fact that fragments of the same manuscript are found in various bookbindings may connect the bindings, perhaps to a specific binder.[4]
The internal and external structure of the bookbinding.
Modern breaking of manuscripts
Illuminated letter with painting of John, cut out from 13th-century manuscriptFranciscan Breviary, Italy (1465), with illuminated letters cut out
Beginning in the nineteenth century, collectors cut ornamented initial letters and miniatures from illuminated manuscripts. In the twentieth century some book dealers began removing leaves from manuscripts to be sold for greater profit as individual pages or keepsakes.[5] This "breaking" of manuscripts has been most common with books of hours which contain illuminated pages, gilding and attractive decorations. "As a result, today there are tens of thousands of single leaves in several hundred U.S. collections."[5] This practice continues today and many individual leaves of books of hours and antiphonals are available on eBay and from book and manuscript dealers.[6] Scholars strongly condemn this practice, even where the manuscript is incomplete to begin with, as it destroys the integrity and evidence of the entire manuscript. The most famous or infamous manuscript breaker was Otto Ege, who dismembered many complete and fragmentary manuscripts to sell the leaves individually or in large boxed collections.
Digital fragmentology
Scholars have studied Otto Ege's dismemberment and sale of manuscript leaves and have attempted to locate the present locations of the leaves of some of those manuscripts. A number of online projects have been started to collect images of these and other manuscript leaves in a virtual reconstruction of the original manuscripts, including Fragmentarium, based in Switzerland. This has been referred to as "digital fragmentology".[5] Websites have also been used to identify and date manuscript fragments through crowdsourcing.[7]
Gallery
Manuscript leaf used as cover
Manuscript leaf used as pastedown
Manuscript leaf used as hinge reinforcement
Manuscript leaf removed from book cover
Book cover of manuscript leaf with slits for binding cords
See also
Codicology (the study of manuscript codices or books as physical objects)
Paleography (the study of old handwriting and scripts)
1 2 "Pickwoad, Nicholas (2000). "The Use of Fragments in Medieval Manuscripts in the Construction and Covering of Bindings on Printed Books". Interpreting and Collecting Fragments of Medieval Books (Proceedings of the Seminar in the History of the Book to 1500). Los Altos Hills, CA & London: Anderson-Lovelace & The Red Gull Press. pp.1–20. ISBN0-9626372-7-0."
↑ See Peter Kidd, Review: Fragments of Medieval Manuscripts Used as Pastedowns in Oxford Bindings, with a Survey of Oxford Binding c. 1515-1620, The Library: The Transactions of the Bibliographical Society, Vol. 7, No. 4 (December 2006), pp. 459-461.
Brownrigg, Linda L.; Smith, Margaret M., eds. (2000), Interpreting and Collecting Fragments of Medieval Books (Proceedings of the Seminar in the History of the Book to 1500), Los Altos Hills, CA & London: Anderson-Lovelace & The Red Gull Press, ISBN0-9626372-7-0
Mark Mersiowsky: Wenn Buchmenschen zum Messer greifen: Zur Wiederverwendung mittelalterlicher Bücher. In: www.flick-werk.net. Die Kunst des Flickens und Wiederverwertens im historischen Tirol, hg. v. Siegfried de Rachewiltz u. Andreas Rauchegger in Zusammenarbeit mit Christiane Ganner (Schriften des Landwirtschaftsmuseums Brunnenburg 15), Brunnenburg 2014, S. 200–219 .
Perani, Mauro & Ruini, Cesarino (eds.), Fragmenta ne Pereant. Recupero e studio dei frammenti di manoscritti medievali e rinascimentali riutilizzati in legature, Longi Editore (Ravenna 2002). ISBN88-8063-319-8
Kienhorst, Hans, Verbruikt Verleden, Handschriftfragmenten in en uit boeken van klooster Soeterbeeck, Radboud Universiteit (Nijmegen 2009) ISBN978 94 90128 19 7 With photographs of manuscript fragments in books at the Soeterbeeck Cloister.
Catalogs of manuscript fragments
Babcock, Robert Gary; Davis, Lisa Fagin & Rusche, Philip G., Catalogue Of Medieval And Renaissance Manuscripts In The Beinecke Rare Book And Manuscript Library At Yale University: MSS 184 - 485 (Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies: V. 34, 48, 100, 176), Brepols Pub. (2004), ISBN978-2503514406. Fragments in Beinecke Library.
Gumbert, J. P., Illustrated Inventory of Medieval Manuscripts in Latin Script in the Netherlands, Introduction: Rules-Instructions, Hilversum, Netherlands (2009), ISBN978-90-8704-110-6. Rules for describing manuscript fragments.
Gumbert, J. P., Illustrated Inventory of Medieval Manuscripts in Latin Script in the Netherlands, Vol. 1 Utrecht, Museum Catharijneconvent, Hilversum, Netherlands (2011), ISBN978-90-8704-261-5. (Illustrated)
Gumbert, J. P., Illustrated Inventory of Medieval Manuscripts in Latin Script in the Netherlands, Vol. 2 Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, Hilversum, Netherlands (2009), ISBN978-90-8704-111-3. (Illustrated)
Ker, Neil R., Fragments of Medieval Manuscripts Used as Pastedowns in Oxford Bindings, with a Survey of Oxford Binding c. 1515-1620, Oxford Bibliographical Society Publications, Third Series, No. 4., Oxford: Oxford Bibliographical Society (1954), ISBN0 901420 55 7.
Skemer, Don C., Medieval & Renaissance Manuscripts in the Princeton University Library, Princeton (2013), Vol. II, Ms. 132, pp.371–381, Taylor Collection of 89 Manuscript Leaves and Documents, Ms. 138, pp.387–400, Princeton general collection of 133 Manuscript Leaves and Documents ISBN978-0-691-15750-4.
The codex was the historical ancestor of the modern book. Instead of being composed of sheets of paper, it used sheets of vellum, papyrus, or other materials. The term codex is often used for ancient manuscript books, with handwritten contents. A codex, much like the modern book, is bound by stacking the pages and securing one set of edges by a variety of methods over the centuries, yet in a form analogous to modern bookbinding. Modern books are divided into paperback and those bound with stiff boards, called hardbacks. Elaborate historical bindings are called treasure bindings. At least in the Western world, the main alternative to the paged codex format for a long document was the continuous scroll, which was the dominant form of document in the ancient world. Some codices are continuously folded like a concertina, in particular the Maya codices and Aztec codices, which are actually long sheets of paper or animal skin folded into pages. In Japan, concertina-style codices called orihon developed during the Heian period (794–1185) were made of paper.
A manuscript was, traditionally, any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way. More recently, the term has come to be understood to further include any written, typed, or word-processed copy of an author's work, as distinguished from the rendition as a printed version of the same.
Vellum is prepared animal skin or membrane, typically used as writing material. It is often distinguished from parchment, either by being made from calfskin, or simply by being of a higher quality. Vellum is prepared for writing and printing on single pages, scrolls, and codices (books).
An illuminated manuscript is a formally prepared document where the text is decorated with flourishes such as borders and miniature illustrations. Often used in the Roman Catholic Church for prayers and liturgical books such as psalters and courtly literature, the practice continued into secular texts from the 13th century onward and typically include proclamations, enrolled bills, laws, charters, inventories, and deeds.
Codicology is the study of codices or manuscript books. It is often referred to as "the archaeology of the book," a term coined by François Masai. It concerns itself with the materials, tools and techniques used to make codices, along with their features.
A treasure binding or jewelled bookbinding is a luxurious book cover using metalwork in gold or silver, jewels, or ivory, perhaps in addition to more usual bookbinding material for book covers such as leather, velvet, or other cloth. The actual bookbinding technique is the same as for other medieval books, with the folios, normally of vellum, stitched together and bound to wooden cover boards. The metal furnishings of the treasure binding are then fixed, normally by tacks, onto these boards. Treasure bindings appear to have existed from at least Late Antiquity, though there are no surviving examples from so early, and Early Medieval examples are very rare. They were less used by the end of the Middle Ages, but a few continued to be produced in the West even up to the present day, and many more in areas where Eastern Orthodoxy predominated. The bindings were mainly used on grand illuminated manuscripts, especially gospel books designed for the altar and use in church services, rather than study in the library.
The size of a book is generally measured by the height against the width of a leaf, or sometimes the height and width of its cover. A series of terms is commonly used by libraries and publishers for the general sizes of modern books, ranging from folio, to quarto (smaller) and octavo. Historically, these terms referred to the format of the book, a technical term used by printers and bibliographers to indicate the size of a leaf in terms of the size of the original sheet. For example, a quarto historically was a book printed on sheets of paper folded in half twice, with the first fold at right angles to the second, to produce 4 leaves, each leaf one fourth the size of the original sheet printed – note that a leaf refers to the single piece of paper, whereas a page is one side of a leaf. Because the actual format of many modern books cannot be determined from examination of the books, bibliographers may not use these terms in scholarly descriptions.
Girdle books were small portable books worn by medieval European monks, clergymen and aristocratic nobles as a popular accessory to medieval costume, between the 13th and 16th centuries. They consisted of a book whose leather binding continued loose below the cover of the book in a long tapered tail with a large knot at the end which could be tucked into one's girdle or belt. The knot was usually strips of leather woven together for durability. The book hung upside down and backwards so that when swung upwards it was ready for reading. The books were normally religious: a cleric's daily Office, or for lay persons a Book of Hours. One of the best known texts to become a girdle book is Boethius's The Consolation of Philosophy, although it is the only surviving philosophical/theological girdle book.
Coptic binding or Coptic sewing comprises methods of bookbinding employed by early Christians in Egypt, the Copts, and used from as early as the 2nd century AD to the 11th century. The term is also used to describe modern bindings sewn in the same style.
The conservation and restoration of illuminated manuscripts is the care and treatment of illuminated manuscripts which have cultural and historical significance so that they may be viewed, read, and studied now and in the future. It is a specialty case of the conservation and restoration of parchment within the field of conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera.
In bookbinding, a section, gathering, or signature is a group of sheets folded in half, to be worked into the binding as a unit.
Otto F. Ege (1888–1951) was a teacher, lecturer, bookseller, and well-known book-breaker. He worked for many years at the Cleveland Institute of Art where he served as Chair of the Department of Teacher Training, instructor of Lettering, Layout, and Typography, and Dean. He was also employed by the School of Library Science at Case Western Reserve University as a lecturer on the History of the Book, and instructor of History and Art of the Book.
The term "folio" has three interconnected but distinct meanings in the world of books and printing: first, it is a term for a common method of arranging sheets of paper into book form, folding the sheet only once, and a term for a book made in this way; second, it is a general term for a sheet, leaf or page in (especially) manuscripts and old books; and third, it is an approximate term for the size of a book, and for a book of this size.
Bookbinding is the process of building a book, usually in codex format, from an ordered stack of paper sheets with one's hands and tools, or in modern publishing, by a series of automated processes. Firstly, one binds the sheets of papers along an edge with a thick needle and strong thread. One can also use loose-leaf rings, binding posts, twin-loop spine coils, plastic spiral coils, and plastic spine combs, but they last for a shorter time. Next, one encloses the bound stack of paper in a cover. Finally, one places an attractive cover onto the boards, and features the publisher's information and artistic decorations.
Disjecta membra, also written disiecta membra, is Latin for "scattered fragments" and is used to refer to surviving fragments of ancient poetry, manuscripts, and other literary or cultural objects, including even fragments of ancient pottery. It is derived from disiecti membra poetae, a phrase used by Horace, a Roman poet.
Neil Ripley Ker was a scholar of Anglo-Saxon literature. He was Reader in Palaeography at the University of Oxford and a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford until he retired in 1968. He is known especially for his Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon, which is praised as a milestone in Anglo-Saxon manuscript study.
The Panizzi Lectures are a series of annual lectures given at the British Library by "eminent scholars of the book" and named after the librarian Anthony Panizzi. They are considered one of the major British bibliographical lecture series alongside the Sandars Lectures at the University of Cambridge and the Lyell Lectures at Oxford University.
Johan Peter Gumbert, known in print as J.P. Gumbert, was a Dutch academic who specialised in medieval European manuscripts. From 1979 to 2001 he was Professor, and then Professor Emeritus, of Western Palaeography and Codicology at Leiden University.
Fragmentarium is an online database to collect and collate fragments of medieval manuscripts making them available to researchers, collectors and historians worldwide. It is an international collaboration of major libraries and collections including the British Library, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Martin Schøyen Collection, Bavarian State Library, Harvard, Yale and the Vatican. It is based in Switzerland and the project's current director is Professor Christoph Flüeler from the University of Fribourg and the Virtual Manuscript Library, Switzerland.
Binding waste is damaged, misprinted, or surplus paper or parchment reused in bookbinding. Whether as whole sheets or fragments, these may be used as the exterior binding, as the endpapers, or as a reinforcement beneath the spine.
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