Fungal effectors are proteins or non-proteinaceous molecules (such as RNAs or small molecules) secreted by pathogenic fungi into a host organism in order to modulate the host's immune response. [1] [2] [3]
Fungal effectors are proteins or non-proteinaceous molecules (such as RNAs or small molecules) secreted by pathogenic fungi into a host organism in order to modulate the host's immune response. [1] [2] [3]
In the first stages of infection, conserved molecules from the fungal pathogen's cell wall, such as polysaccharides and chitin, are recognised by membrane-localised pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on the plant host's side. Such conserved molecules are generally described as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) and the initial innate immune response that their recognition triggers is known as PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI). [4]
In order to counteract PTI, fungal pathogens secrete effector proteins into the host, some of which may directly inhibit components of the innate immune response cascade. One example is the conserved effector NIS1, present in fungal pathogens from the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota phyla. NIS1 blocks PAMP-triggered immune responses by interacting with the PRR-associated kinases BAK1 and BIK1 and preventing these kinases from interacting with their downstream partners. [5] To protect themselves from the actions of effector proteins, plants have evolved resistance proteins (R proteins), which may in turn recognise an effector and trigger a second tier of immune responses, known as effector-triggered immunity (ETI).
Plant pathogenic fungi use two distinct effector secretion systems and each secretory pathway is specific to an effector family:
| Pathogen nutrition | Pathogen species | Plant disease and host plant species | Known effectors and their functions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Biotrophic | Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei (Bgh) | Powdery mildew on barley | AVRA10 - recognized by the MLA10 R-protein from barley. [8] AVRK1 - recognized by the MLK1 R-protein from barley. [8] |
| Cladosporium fulvum | Leaf mould on tomato | Ecp6 - sequesters chitin, making less chitin available to bind PRRs. [9] Avr4 - binds to chitin oligomers in the fungal cell wall, protecting it from degradation by chitinases. [9] | |
| Ustilago maydis | Corn smut (maize) | Pep1; Pit2; Cmu1; Tin2; See1 | |
| Hemibiotrophic | Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici | Tomato vascular wilt | Six1 (Avr3) - recognised by the R-protein I-3 from tomato, and when this happens local cell death is triggered as a defense mechanism. [10] Six3 (Avr2) - recognised by the R-protein I-2, triggering local cell death. [10] Six4 (Avr1) - suppresses I-2 and I-3-mediated cell death; in resistant tomato varieties Avr1 is recognised and neutralised by I and I-1. [10] Six6 - suppresses I-2 and I-3-mediated cell death. [10] |
| Leptosphaeria maculans | Blackleg disease on Brassica crops. [11] | AvrLm1; AvrLm2; AvrLm3 | |
| Magnaporthe oryzae | Rice blast disease | Cytoplasmic effectors: Avr-Pizt - interacts with the E3 ubiquitin ligase APIP6, which indirectly leads to reduced Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) production and suppresses the expression of defence-related genes. [12] Pwl1, Pwl2, Bas1, Avr-Pita, MC69 Apoplastic effectors: Slp1 - binds to and sequesters chitin oligosaccharides. As a result, chitin is unavailable to bind to the host's chitin elicitor binding protein (CEBiP) and elicit PAMP-triggered defence responses. [13] BAS4, BAS113 | |
| Phytophthora infestans | Potato blight | AVR3a - cytoplasmic effector interacting with and stabilising the plant E3 ubiquitin ligase CMPG1. As a result CMPG1 is unable to get degraded and trigger cell death, allowing the pathogen to obtain nutrients from living host cells (biotrophy). AVRblb2 - a cytoplasmic effector preventing the secretion of a papain-like cysteine protease (C14) from the host, which would otherwise serve to degrade fungal effector proteins. [14] | |
| Necrotrophic | Pyrenophora tritici-repentis | Tan spot of wheat. [15] | PtrToxA; PtrToxB |
| Parastognospora nodorum | Septoria nodorum blotch in wheat. [16] | SnToxA; SnTox1; SnTox2; SnTox3; SnTox4; SnTox5; SnTox6; SnTox7; SnTox8 | |
| Cochliobolus heterostrophus | Southern corn leaf blight (maize) [17] | ChToxA - in maize varieties sensitive to ToxA it induces leaf necrosis in response to light. [18] | |
| Cochliobolus sativus | BsToxA | ||
| Corynespora cassiicola | Corynespora leaf fall disease in rubber trees [19] | Cassiicolin - disrupts the membranes of host plant cells, causing leaf necrosis. [19] | |
| Cochliobolus victoriae | victorin |