Gradual release of responsibility

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The gradual release of responsibility (GRR) model is a structured method of pedagogy centred on devolving responsibility within the learning process from the teacher to the learner. This approach requires the teacher to initially take on all the responsibility for a task, transitioning in stages to the students assuming full independence in carrying it out. [1] The goal is to cultivate confident learners and thinkers who are capable of handling tasks even in areas where they have not yet gained expertise. [2]

Contents

Theory

While similar models have been identified and represented throughout the study and development of teaching and learning as a construct, it was Pearson & Gallagher (1983) [3] who coined the phrase "gradual release of responsibility" to describe this dynamic in the classroom. Loosely basing their model on the ideas of the Russian educational theorist Lev Vygotsky, Pearson and Gallagher envisioned instruction that moved from explicit modeling and instruction to guided practice and then to activities that incrementally positioned students into becoming independent learners. The teacher guides the students to a point of 'planned obsolescence' on the part of the teacher "...where the student accepts total responsibility for the task, including the responsibility for determining whether or not she is applying the strategy appropriately (i.e, self monitoring)." [3] : 34 

One element which is crucial to the success of the GRR model is the notion related to 'instructional scaffolding', which is grounded in Vygotsky's concept of the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). This is described as the distance between the actual developmental level of a learner as determined by their independent problem solving abilities and the level of potential development through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. That is, the distance between what the children can do without assistance and what they can accomplish with the assistance of more capable peers. The zone of proximal development can be applied as an umbrella over the entire GRR model. Students are given support in the form of scaffolding and differentiate instruction throughout all four phases of the process. Teachers may offer more challenging material to high-achieving students, and assist lower-achieving students in needs-based groups. Teachers will support students as needed throughout all four steps finally allowing for the eventual independence of each student. [4] The GRR model "...assumes that [the student] will need some guidance in reaching that stage of independence and that it is precisely the teacher's role to provide such guidance". [3] : 34 

Vygotsky (1978) believed that guided interactions, with an adult, or a more skilled peer, could facilitate a higher level of thinking within the zone. [5] In Vygotsky's theory, this person is referred to as the "More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)". [6] The four phases of the GRR Model are: Focus Lesson – "I do it", Guided Instruction – "We do it", Collaborative – "You do it together", and Independent – "You do it alone" (Fisher & Frey 2006). In the GRR model, the MKO exists in the person of the teacher-guide in the "I do it" and "We do it" phases. The MKO resurfaces again in the collaborative process where peers may assist each other as expertise, personal experience, and/or understanding allows.

There have been a number of ways of describing and representing the ways in which adults or more experienced others may assist novice learners within their ZPD. Rogoff (1990) [7] recognised that this could be achieved through guided participation, and this is similar to the concept of Tharp and Gallimore's theory (1991), [8] of "means of assisting" and to that of the practice of reciprocal teaching recognised by Brown and Palincsar. [9] Others have recognised the similarities between this method of instruction and the integrated approach of collaboration in conceptual change (Rochelle, 1992) and the cognitive apprenticeship model of Collins, Brown, and Newman (1989).

This term 'scaffolding' is a useful metaphor that is used to symbolise the process of supporting a learner in the early stages of the learning process – as the walls get higher – until there is sufficient evidence of knowledge and skills having been acquired, to then be able to remove that scaffolding so the learner is able to 'stand alone', or be effectively independent enough to continue learning 'alone'. In a similar way, there is a gradual dismantling of the scaffolding as the 'job' becomes more secure and so there is a gradual release of responsibility from the teacher to the learner. As scaffolding is temporary, so too are the lessons that are constructed to help students as they embark into unfamiliar thinking. As noted by Pearson and Gallagher, "The critical stage of the model is the 'guided practice,' the stage in which the teacher gradually releases task responsibility to the students." As such, these lessons eventually fade away as students become gradually more comfortable with the learning and are able to work without the necessary guidance of the teacher. [3] : 35 

Although based on the work of Piaget, the influence of Vygotsky's 'constructivist theory' and learning in the classroom has become more popular because it considers the influence of group processes and social contexts that are, in themselves, influenced by such constructs as cultural diversity and stages of development.

The GRR model emphasizes instruction that supports and mentors students into becoming capable thinkers and learners when handling tasks with which they have yet to develop expertise in. It is a successful model and has been documented as an effective approach in teaching many subject areas and a variety of content, from writing achievement, reading comprehension, and literacy outcomes for English language learners (Kong & Pearson, 2003). [10]

The four phases

Focused lesson


Focus lessons are a time for students to hear the teacher and not answer questions about their own thinking. This is the time for students to actively listen, take notes and ask for clarification. "I think...", or "I wonder...", or "I predict...." are the types of statements students will hear.


According to Fisher and Frey, Modeling follows a precise pattern:

  1. Name the strategy, skill, or task
  2. State the purpose of the strategy, skill or task
  3. Explain when the strategy or skill is used
  4. Use analogies to link prior knowledge to new learning
  5. Demonstrate how the skill, strategy, or task is completed
  6. Alert learners about errors to avoid
  7. Assess the use of the new skill

"Once students have a skill or strategy modeled, they gain a deeper understanding for when to apply it, what to watch for, and how to analyze their success." [11] : 24  Students can then be given time to talk and practice with a partner. Students need to be provided with examples for them to be successful.

"The key to a quality focus lesson is in the direct explaining and modeling of the skill, strategies, and task." [11] : 19 

Guided instruction

The goal of guided instruction in the gradual release of responsibility model is to guide students toward using different skills, strategies and procedures independently. The student will assume more responsibility with less support from the teacher. Lessons are created as to ensure student success. [12] Oftentimes when students are struggling with a concept in the classroom, they do not need more teacher modelling, what they really need is guidance and support to meet high expectations. [11]

Teachers meet with needs based groups which are created based on the feedback from formative assessment with the aim being for students to progress toward completing the outcome or skill independently. [13] Formative assessments are planned in accordance with specific outcomes, which make it easier for teachers to group students. Groups may change frequently and are not static groups for the entire school year. Student groups change throughout the year based on assessed performance and not on teacher perceived ability. [11] Each group has a purpose and the teacher plans instructional lessons based on the common needs of the group. Guided instruction gives the teacher an opportunity to differentiated instruction small group instruction, vary the level of prompting and also vary the end product. The teacher must be flexible since the instructional goal of the group may change throughout the sessions. [11]

In a classroom there may be many different guided instruction groups. Each group may be working on a different skill or at a different level. Fisher's model recommends meeting with groups 1–3 times per week, with some groups meeting more frequently and other stronger groups meeting less often. The size of the groups will also vary depending on how much face time is required for the particular skill. It is a common misconception that guided instruction is only for struggling students. This is an opportunity for teachers to provide enrichment for strong students. Guided instruction is based on the pedagogical principles of scaffolding. [11]

A study by Conklin and Wilkins shows growth and advances in reading levels among elementary students when using a guided reading approach. Working with the teacher in small groups gave students a chance to work on specific skills, at their reading level. Students gained confidence when reading 'just right' texts. Since they were not struggling with the text they were able to develop vocabulary, reading comprehension skills and oral language skills. [14] Gabl, Kaiser, Long and Roemer found similar results when providing reading intervention in the form of guided reading groups to grade two and grade four students. The results showed an increase in reading fluency and comprehension after using flexible grouping in guided reading. [15]

Improvement in writing can also be seen when teachers implement a guided writing aspect to their literacy based lessons. Gibson notes that providing immediate instructional scaffolding to specific groups of students increases performance. The teacher chooses the instructional goals based on observation and formative assessment. [16] Regardless of subject matter, students who are taught and then grouped according to need and re-taught based on their needs commonly show improvement.

Collaborative learning

Collaborative learning is the third component of the gradual release of responsibility model where students work in small heterogeneous groups on activities that allow them to deepen their understanding through application of the concept being learned. This stage of the model is the beginning of the transfer of responsibility from the teacher to the students. The collaborative learning component requires that each student is accountable for their participation by producing an independent product while engaged with his peers. [11] : 63–64 

There are five key features of collaborative or cooperative learning that researchers have found essential to produce effective learning. They are positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual and group accountability, interpersonal and small group skills, and group processing. [17] Positive interdependence within a collaborative learning environment means that each member of the group contributes an individual effort to the task which is necessary for the whole group's success. The interdependence of this structure creates an environment in which all individuals are important to the group as a whole, and the sharing of understandings, processes and ideas among members is common. [18]

Face-to-face interaction is another key component of collaborative learning where students interact within their group about their task, providing support, encouragement and praise as needed to reach the goal. [18] In the face to face groups students can check understanding through discussions of the concepts and ideas of the content being studied. [11] : 66 

Individual and group accountability requires that each member of the collaborative group be responsible for contributing their share of the work. This can be done with clear goals, and assessment that is measurable in terms of achieving goals and the efforts of the group members. [11] : 67 

Collaborative or cooperative learning requires students to act as a members of a team. A skill set that includes leadership, active listening, decision making, turn taking and trust making are useful in collaborative learning. These teamwork skills need to be purposely taught as part of the gradual release of responsibility model. [18]

The final key of collaborative learning is group processing. This refers to the members reflecting on how they are as a group reaching the collaborative learning task, and how as individuals they are learning. Reflection on the workings of the group, what worked and what improvements could be made is also a part of the group processing. [18] [11]

Independent tasks

The last phase of gradual release of responsibility provides students with the opportunity to employ what they have learned in a new situation. Students can be given a variety of independent tasks but the assignments should reflect the other phases of instructional content. While students are working, the teacher's role is to circulate the room listening and making observations.

Due to time restrictions in the classroom, independent work must be completed by the student at home. According to the Nova Scotia Department of Education, homework is "an assigned activity that students complete outside of regular class time. When assignments are purposeful, engaging, of high quality, and given in moderation, the assignment of homework by teachers is positively associated with student learning success". [19]

Research by Harris Cooper, Jorgianne C. Robinson, and Erika A. Patall has proven, "with only rare exceptions, the relationship between the amount of homework students do and their achievement outcomes was found to be positive and statistically significant". In a survey sponsored by MetLife, the majority of teachers surveyed said they used homework to "improve skills in the classroom and for improving life skills beyond high school". [20]

Benefits of homework

Studies have shown that classroom instruction and homework can complement one another to result in deeper understanding and improved skills. [21] The Nova Scotia Department of Education provides the following recommendation for maximum daily homework for all subjects:

Grade LevelMaximum Homework Time, 4 Nights / Week
420–30 mins.
530–40 mins.
640–50 mins.
760 mins.
860 mins.
990 mins.
1090 mins.
11120 mins.
12120 mins.

Some strategies suggested for students to start self-monitoring and recording of time spent on homework. [22] Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey use their research to create a four tiered progression of how homework can benefit students throughout their learning process:

  1. Fluency Building – A reading assignment related to the day's instructional material allows for the focus on one or two skills.
  2. Application – Students benefit from being asked to apply their newly gained knowledge independently after initial practice in the classroom.
  3. Spiral Review – Allows students to apply a number of skills learned in the not so recent past to prepare for major summative assessments. This enables students to develop more confidence and efficiency with material as long as students are able to "organize factual knowledge into larger core concepts".
  4. Extension – This takes the form of applying mastered knowledge cross-circularly or over many topics. [20] [22]

Problems with homework

Homework is problematic when teachers' observations from the independent phase are not employed when determining how much and what kinds of expectations will be placed on students to accomplish for the next class. There is a concern that homework tasks are assigned prematurely in the instructional process and as a result, students learn things incorrectly. This is extremely problematic since it takes even more time to unlearn misconceptions and misunderstandings. [20]

The Nova Scotia Department of Education states that "students learn to assume responsibility for the independent completion of homework through a process of successive and structured release of responsibility. It is therefore important that homework assignments are geared to the realities of students' developing skills to avoid undue frustration and disengagement." [19]

In the same survey sponsored by MetLife, 26% of secondary teachers said they often assign homework due to time restrictions which Fisher and Frey suggest to be problematic because this implies that students are regularly given homework assignments for which they are not adequately prepared. [20]

Homework can be a meaningful part of the independent phase of learning when administered thoughtfully based on the observations made during the independent phase of the gradual release of responsibility framework.

Giving homework early in the morning can often distract students during lessons later in the day. Instead of focusing on the task at hand, many are attempting to finish their homework before it is time to go home. Historically, homework has been seen as a means to improve academic achievement (Lacina-Gifford & Gifford, 2004), discipline the mind (Wildman, 1968), and help children become lifelong learners (Bembenutty, 2011). It has been argued that higher levels of homework and discipline are two reasons why private schools have more successful learning environments than public schools (Coleman, Hoffer, & Kilgore, 1982). This implies that if public schools assigned more homework and had higher levels of discipline, they would increase learning and foster educational discipline in students. A study from 1988 examines the role and outcome of various homework approaches in an elementary school setting. It was found that "low achievement in reading and mathematics, in comparison with high achievement, is associated with more time spent doing homework, more minutes of parent help, and more frequent requests from teachers for parent involvement." [23]

Related Research Articles

Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Student-centered learning</span> Methods of teaching

Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students by imparting to them skills, and the basis on how to learn a specific subject and schemata required to measure up to the specific performance requirement. Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving. Student-centered learning theory and practice are based on the constructivist learning theory that emphasizes the learner's critical role in constructing meaning from new information and prior experience.

Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together. Unlike individual learning, people engaged in collaborative learning capitalize on one another's resources and skills. More specifically, collaborative learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetric roles. Put differently, collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage in a common task where each individual depends on and is accountable to each other. These include both face-to-face conversations and computer discussions. Methods for examining collaborative learning processes include conversation analysis and statistical discourse analysis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constructivism (philosophy of education)</span> Philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge; theory of knowledge

Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know. For children, this includes knowledge gained prior to entering school. It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as well as ontology, politics, and ethics. The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory that emphasizes the importance of the process in which a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice.

Sheltered instruction is an educational approach designed to make academic content more accessible to English language learners (ELLs) while promoting their language development. It involves modifying instruction to accommodate students' language proficiency levels and providing additional support to help comprehend and engage with material effectively.

A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal, how the goal will be reached and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zone of proximal development</span> Difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with help

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a concept in educational psychology. It represents the space between what a learner is capable of doing unsupported and what the learner cannot do even with support. It is the range where the learner is able to perform, but only with support from a teacher or a peer with more knowledge or expertise. The concept was introduced, but not fully developed, by psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) during the last three years of his life. Vygotsky argued that a child gets involved in a dialogue with the "more knowledgeable other" such as a peer or an adult and gradually, through social interaction and sense-making, develops the ability to solve problems independently and do certain tasks without help. Following Vygotsky, some educators believe that the role of education is to give children experiences that are within their zones of proximal development, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning such as skills and strategies.

Guided reading is "small-group reading instruction designed to provide differentiated teaching that supports students in developing reading proficiency". The small group model allows students to be taught in a way that is intended to be more focused on their specific needs, accelerating their progress.

English-language learner is a term used in some English-speaking countries such as the United States and Canada to describe a person who is learning the English language and has a native language that is not English. Some educational advocates, especially in the United States, classify these students as non-native English speakers or emergent bilinguals. Various other terms are also used to refer to students who are not proficient in English, such as English as a second language (ESL), English as an additional language (EAL), limited English proficient (LEP), culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD), non-native English speaker, bilingual students, heritage language, emergent bilingual, and language-minority students. The legal term that is used in federal legislation is 'limited English proficient'. The instruction and assessment of students, their cultural background, and the attitudes of classroom teachers towards ELLs have all been found to be factors in the achievement of these students. Several methods have been suggested to effectively teach ELLs, including integrating their home cultures into the classroom, involving them in language-appropriate content-area instruction early on, and integrating literature into their learning programs.

Inquiry-based learning is a form of active learning that starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios. It contrasts with traditional education, which generally relies on the teacher presenting facts and their knowledge about the subject. Inquiry-based learning is often assisted by a facilitator rather than a lecturer. Inquirers will identify and research issues and questions to develop knowledge or solutions. Inquiry-based learning includes problem-based learning, and is generally used in small-scale investigations and projects, as well as research. The inquiry-based instruction is principally very closely related to the development and practice of thinking and problem-solving skills.

Language teaching, like other educational activities, may employ specialized vocabulary and word use. This list is a glossary for English language learning and teaching using the communicative approach.


Enhancing Reading Comprehension through Reciprocal Teaching

Balanced literacy is a theory of teaching reading and writing the English language that arose in the 1990s and has a variety of interpretations. For some, balanced literacy strikes a balance between whole language and phonics and puts an end to the so called reading wars. Others say balanced literacy, in practice, usually means the whole language approach to reading.

A dialogue journal is an ongoing written interaction between two people to exchange experiences, ideas, knowledge or reflections. It is used most often in education as a means of sustained written interaction between students and teachers at all education levels. It can be used to promote second language learning and learning in all areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Differentiated instruction</span> Framework or philosophy for effective teaching

Differentiated instruction and assessment, also known as differentiated learning or, in education, simply, differentiation, is a framework or philosophy for effective teaching that involves providing all students within their diverse classroom community of learners a range of different avenues for understanding new information in terms of: acquiring content; processing, constructing, or making sense of ideas; and developing teaching materials and assessment measures so that all students within a classroom can learn effectively, regardless of differences in their ability. Differentiated instruction means using different tools, content, and due process in order to successfully reach all individuals. Differentiated instruction, according to Carol Ann Tomlinson, is the process of "ensuring that what a student learns, how he or she learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he or she has learned is a match for that student's readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning." According to Boelens et al. (2018), differentiation can be on two different levels: the administration level and the classroom level. The administration level takes the socioeconomic status and gender of students into consideration. At the classroom level, differentiation revolves around content, processing, product, and effects. On the content level, teachers adapt what they are teaching to meet the needs of students. This can mean making content more challenging or simplified for students based on their levels. The process of learning can be differentiated as well. Teachers may choose to teach individually at a time, assign problems to small groups, partners or the whole group depending on the needs of the students. By differentiating product, teachers decide how students will present what they have learned. This may take the form of videos, graphic organizers, photo presentations, writing, and oral presentations. All these take place in a safe classroom environment where students feel respected and valued—effects.

Literature Circles in EFL are teacher accompanied classroom discussion groups among English as a foreign language learners, who regularly get together in class to speak about and share their ideas, and comment on others' interpretations about the previously determined section of a graded reader in English, using their 'role-sheets' and 'student journals' in collaboration with each other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flipped classroom</span> Instructional strategy and a type of blended learning

A flipped classroom is an instructional strategy and a type of blended learning, which aims to increase student engagement and learning by having pupils complete readings at home and work on live problem-solving during class time. This pedagogical style moves activities, including those that may have traditionally been considered homework, into the classroom. With a flipped classroom, students watch online lectures, collaborate in online discussions, or carry out research at home, while actively engaging concepts in the classroom, with a mentor's guidance.

Distributed scaffolding is a concept developed by Puntambekar and Kolodner in 1998 that describes an ongoing system of student support through multiple tools, activities, technologies and environments that increase student learning and performance.

Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar is a scholar of education known for her research on literacy instruction, reciprocal teaching, and cognitive apprenticeships. Her involvement in the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Research Council on the Prevention of Reading Difficulty in Young Children, the National Research Council's Panel on Teacher Preparation, and the International Literacy Association's Literacy Research Panel, attests to her dedication to advancing educational research and improving teacher training. Palincsar is the Ann L. Brown Distinguished University Professor Emerita at the Marsal Family School of Education at the University of Michigan.

References

  1. ↑ (Duke & Pearson, 2002)
  2. ↑ Buehl, D. (2005). Scaffolding. Reading Room.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Pearson, P.D.; Gallagher, M. (October 1983). "The Instruction of Reading Comprehension" (PDF). Contemporary Educational Psychology . 8 (3). Washington, DC: University of Illinois, National Institute of Education: 317–344. doi:10.1016/0361-476X(83)90019-X. hdl: 2142/17939 .
  4. ↑ Jeffery Wilhelm, Youtube.com. N.p., 2009. Web. 6 Jun 2012. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2kthBiYHF4>
  5. ↑ Newman, Griffin, & Cole, 1989; Rogoff, 1990). Newman, D., Griffin, P., & Cole, M. (1989). The construction zone. New York: Cambridge University Press
  6. ↑ McLeod , S.. "Vgotsky." Simply psychology. Simply Psychology, 2007. Web. 7 Jun 2012. <http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html>
  7. ↑ Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York: Oxford University Press
  8. ↑ Tharp, R., & Gallimore, R. (1991). A theory of teaching as assisted performance. In P. Light, S. Sheldon, & M. Woodhead (Eds.), Learning to think (pp. 42–62). London, New York: The Open University.
  9. ↑ Palincsar, A., & Brown, A. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Educational Psychologist, 21(1 & 2), 73–98.
  10. ↑ The road to participation: The construction of a literacy practice in a learning community of linguistically diverse learners. Research in the Teaching of English, 38, 85–124.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Better Learning Through Structured Teaching: A Framework for the Gradual Release of Responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
  12. ↑ Nova Scotia Department of Education (2007). Teaching in Action: Grades 4-6. Halifax, N.S.: Nova Scotia Department of Education. Retrieved May 6, 2012 from http://www.ednet.ns.ca/pdfdocs/curriculum/TIA4-6_WEB.pdf Archived 2015-09-19 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ↑ Maynes, N., Julien-Schultz, L., Dunn, C. (2010). Modeling and the Gradual Release of Responsibility: What Does It Look Like in the Classroom? Brock Education Journal, 19(2), 65-77. Retrieved from http://www.ed.brocku.ca/ojs/index.php/brocked/article/view/136/131
  14. ↑ Conklin, S., Wilkins, K. (2002). Improving Student Reading Skills through the Use of Guided Reading. Unpublished masters dissertation, Saint Xavier University, Chicago, IL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED471575) Retrieved May 6, 2012, from ERIC database.
  15. ↑ Gabl, K., Kaiser, K., Long, J., Roemer, J. (2007). Improving Reading Comprehension and Fluency through the Use of Guided Reading. Unpublished masters dissertation, Saint Xavier University, Chicago, IL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED496377) Retrieved May 6, 2012, from ERIC database.
  16. ↑ Gibson, S. (2008). Guided Writing Lessons: Second-Grade Students' Development of Strategic Behavior. Reading Horizons, 48(2), 111-132. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ833885) Retrieved May 6, 2012, from ERIC database.
  17. ↑ Johnson, D., Johnson, R., Smith, K., & Stoll, E. L. (January 01, 1996). Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. Communication Education, 45, 3, p. 262.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Johnson, David W. and Johnson, Roger T.. (undefined). Cooperative Learning Institute And Interaction Book Company. In An Overview Of Cooperative Learning. Retrieved May 1, 2012, from http://www.co-operation.org/?page_id=65.
  19. 1 2 Nova Scotia Department of Education, English Program Services. (2011). Homework Guide for Teachers ( ISBN   978-1-55457-390-5). (Homework Tips, 2008) http://www.ednet.ns.ca/pdfdocs/curriculum/Homework_Booklet_for_Teachers-10-12.pdf Archived 2015-09-19 at the Wayback Machine
  20. 1 2 3 4 Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Homework and the gradual release of responsibility: Making "responsibility" possible. English Journal, 98(2), 40-45. Retrieved from http://www.fisherandfrey.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/ej-homework.pdf. Archived 2012-01-19 at the Wayback Machine
  21. ↑ Coutts, Pamela M. (2004-08-01). "Meanings of Homework and Implications for Practice". Theory into Practice. 43 (3): 182–188. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4303_3. ISSN   0040-5841. S2CID   144949429.
  22. 1 2 Homework Tips. In (2008). Nova Scotia Curriculum Documents Retrieved from https://sapps.ednet.ns.ca/Cart/items.php?CA=1&UID=20090902095839142.227.51.61 http://www.ednet.ns.ca/pdfdocs/curriculum/Homework_Tips_10-12.pdf Archived 2015-09-19 at the Wayback Machine
  23. ↑ Epstein, Joyce. "Homework Practices, Achievements, and Behaviors of Elementary School Students. Report No. 26". ERIC. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
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