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Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) or mucopolysaccharides are long linear polysaccharides consisting of repeating disaccharide units. Except for keratan, the repeating unit consists of an amino sugar, along with a uronic sugar or galactose. Because GAGs are highly polar and attract water, they are used in the body as a lubricant or shock absorber.
The fibroblast growth factors (FGF) are a family of cell signalling proteins that are involved in a wide variety of processes, most notably as crucial elements for normal development. Any irregularities in their function lead to a range of developmental defects. These growth factors generally act as systemic or locally circulating molecules of extracellular origin that activate cell surface receptors. A defining property of FGFs is that they bind to heparin and heparan sulfate. Thus, some of them are found to be sequestered in the extracellular matrix of tissues that contains heparan sulfate proteoglycans and they are released locally upon injury or tissue remodeling.
Perlecan (PLC) also known as basement membrane-specific heparan sulfate proteoglycan core protein (HSPG) or heparan sulfate proteoglycan 2 (HSPG2), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HSPG2 gene.
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. It occurs as a proteoglycan (HSPG) in which two or three HS chains are attached in close proximity to cell surface or extracellular matrix proteins. It is in this form that HS binds to a variety of protein ligands, including Wnt, and regulates a wide range of biological activities, including developmental processes, angiogenesis, blood coagulation, abolishing detachment activity by GrB, and tumour metastasis. HS has also been shown to serve as cellular receptor for a number of viruses, including the respiratory syncytial virus.
Sulfatases EC 3.1.6.- are enzymes of the esterase class that catalyze the hydrolysis of sulfate esters. These may be found on a range of substrates, including steroids, carbohydrates and proteins. Sulfate esters may be formed from various alcohols and amines. In the latter case the resultant N-sulfates can also be termed sulfamates.
Sulfation or sulfurylation in biochemistry is the enzyme-catalyzed conjugation of a sulfo group to another molecule. This biotransformation involves a sulfotransferase enzyme catalyzing the transfer of a sulfo group from a donor cosubstrate, usually 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS), to a substrate molecule's hydroxyl or amine, resulting in a sulfate or sulfamate, respectively. Sulfation is involved in a variety of biological processes, including detoxification, hormone regulation, molecular recognition, cell signaling, and viral entry into cells. It is among the reactions in phase II drug metabolism, frequently effective in rendering a xenobiotic less active from a pharmacological and toxicological standpoint, but sometimes playing a role in the activation of xenobiotics. Another example of biological sulfation is in the synthesis of sulfonated glycosaminoglycans, such as heparin, heparan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate, and dermatan sulfate. Sulfation is also a possible posttranslational modification of proteins.
Sulfotransferases (SULTs) are transferase enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a sulfo group from a donor molecule to an acceptor alcohol or amine. The most common sulfo group donor is 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS). In the case of alcohol as acceptor, the product is a sulfate (R-OSO3−), whereas an amine leads to a sulfamate (R-NH-SO3−). Both reactive groups for a sulfonation via sulfotransferases may be part of a protein, lipid, carbohydrate or steroid.
In enzymology, a [heparan sulfate]-glucosamine 3-sulfotransferase 1 is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
In enzymology, a [heparan sulfate]-glucosamine 3-sulfotransferase 2 is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
In enzymology, a [heparan sulfate]-glucosamine 3-sulfotransferase 3 is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
Sulfatase 1, also known as SULF1, is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the SULF1 gene.
Heparan sulfate glucosamine 3-O-sulfotransferase 3A1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HS3ST3A1 gene.
Heparan sulfate glucosamine 3-O-sulfotransferase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HS3ST1 gene.
Heparan sulfate 2-O-sulfotransferase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HS2ST1 gene.
Heparan sulfate glucosamine 3-O-sulfotransferase 3B1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HS3ST3B1 gene. Heparan sulfate biosynthetic enzymes are key components in generating myriad distinct heparan sulfate fine structures that carry out multiple biologic activities. The enzyme encoded by this gene is a member of the heparan sulfate biosynthetic enzyme family. It is a type II integral membrane protein and possesses heparan sulfate glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase activity ( HS3ST3A1). The Sulfotransferase domain of this enzyme is highly similar to the same domain of heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase 3A1 and these two enzymes sulfate an identical disaccharide. This gene is widely expressed, with the most abundant expression in liver and placenta.
Heparan sulfate glucosamine 3-O-sulfotransferase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HS3ST2 gene.
Carbohydrate sulfotransferases are sulfotransferase enzymes that transfer sulfate to carbohydrate groups in glycoproteins and glycolipids. Carbohydrates are used by cells for a wide range of functions from structural purposes to extracellular communication. Carbohydrates are suitable for such a wide variety of functions due to the diversity in structure generated from monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkage positions, chain branching, and covalent modification. Possible covalent modifications include acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, and sulfation. Sulfation, performed by carbohydrate sulfotransferases, generates carbohydrate sulfate esters. These sulfate esters are only located extracellularly, whether through excretion into the extracellular matrix (ECM) or by presentation on the cell surface. As extracellular compounds, sulfated carbohydrates are mediators of intercellular communication, cellular adhesion, and ECM maintenance.
Galactose-3-O-sulfotransferases is a family of several mammalian galactose-3-O-sulfotransferase proteins. Gal-3-O-sulfotransferase is thought to play a critical role in 3'-sulfation of N-acetyllactosamine in both O- and N-glycans.
Heparan sulfate 6-sulfotransferases catalyses the transfer of sulfate from adenosine 3'-phosphate, 5'-phosphosulfate to the 6th position of the N-sulfoglucosamine residue in heparan sulfate.
Heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HS6ST2 gene.