Madurai is a major tier II city in the state of Tamil Nadu, India.[1][2] It is the administrative headquarters of the Madurai District and a popular Hindu pilgrimage centre.[3][4][5] The history of Madurai extends to about 2000 years, and in that time, it has become one of the state's most important economic, religious and cultural centres.[6]
Madurai and its vicinity is known to have been inhabited by Homo sapiens since the Upper Paleolithic and the Mesolithic period.[7] Quartzite tools belonging to the Upper Paleolithic period were found in the banks of the Vaigai, immediately north to the old town of Madurai.[8] Several other sites to the south of Madurai have been identified to be of the Mesolithic period. Megaliths, dolmens, and menhirs dated to the Neolithic are found in Manamadurai and Perumal Malai, all of them in the vicinity of Madurai.[8][9]
In the upper Gundar basin, around 20 km southwest to Madurai, 109 Microlithic sites have been identified.[7] Located near Tirumangalam and Usilampatti, these exhibit clear signs of Mesolithic habitation. Blades, hammerstones, chips, flakes and other lithic artifacts have been collected, and have been dated to the Mesolithic, with the stone toolkit of these peoples indicating the use of microlithic technology.[7]
The environment around Madurai was in contrast with the present-day conditions. Humid conditions prevailed in the area during the early Holocene, while the semi-arid conditions of the present gradually came into being in the middle Holocene.[7] The fauna included many Mesolithic wild animals, with bones representing the Nilgiri tahr and the Zebu found. Flora represented in the records include the Dioscorea yams and the Acacia caesia (Eenkai). The hunter-gatherer groups of the period had movement and foraging strategies similar in some ways to that of the Paliyans, who presently inhabit the area.[7]
The Neolithic sites show development in technology, with the people exhibiting use of macrolithic technology. Ringstones (or maceheads), made of gneiss and perforated with bores are also found, dating to the Neolithic. Hammerstones, buried urns, and megalithic tombs of the this period are also found.[8]
Iron age (1000 BC - 300 BC)
The Iron age in the region is marked by a significant shift towards sophisticated iron technology, with numerous iron swords, iron frames, and other tools and artifacts being found at sites surrounding Madurai.[10]Potsherds, bowls, jars and black and red pottery collected at these sites show signs of gradual urbanization. Bones exhibiting signs of butchering and charring, were also discovered, along with bones of sheep and goat.[7]Wootz steel, a kind of high carbon crucible steel, was also developed around this period, due to refinement in steel production methods.[11]
Madurai has been inhabited since at least the 3rd century BCE.[12] The Sangam period settlement site of Keeladi, dating back to the 6th century BCE, is located about 12 kilometres southeast of Madurai. Inscriptions of the Pandya king Netunceliyan I (c. 2nd century BCE) are found in Mangulam, a village located 25 kilometres from Madurai.[13]
Pandya coin depicting a temple between hills, and an elephant. Sri Lanka, c. 1st century CE.
Megasthenes may have visited Madurai during the 3rd century BCE, with the city referred as "Methora" in his accounts.[14] The view is contested by some scholars who believe "Methora" refers to the north Indian city of Mathura, as it was a large and established city in the Mauryan Empire.[15] Megasthenes reports an oral tradition of a deity venerated in "Methora", which, according to some scholars, serves as an early precursor to the legend of Meenakshi as Madurai's tutelary deity. The story begins with a male deity, whose only daughter was given a large army, and a territory to rule. Her name, reports Megasthenes, was "Pandia", which she got from her kingdom's name. The god himself finally married her, unable to find a suitable spouse for her. It is known that the Pandyas did exist during this time, as evidenced by Ashoka's Major Rock Edict No., 2, so it is indeed possible that Megasthenes did refer to Madurai.[14] Madurai is also mentioned in Kautilya's (370–283 BCE)[16]Arthashastra.[14] Madurai is mentioned in the works of Roman historians Pliny the Younger (61– c. 112 CE),[17]Ptolemy (c. 90– c. CE 168), those of the Greek geographer Strabo (64/63 BCE– c. 24 CE),[18] and also in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.[19] The country of the Pandyas was described as Pandya Mediterranea (the Pandyan inland) and Modura Regia Pandionis (the Madurai-ruling Pandyans) by Ptolemy.[20] The second book of the Tamil epic Silappatikaram (c. 5th century CE) is set in Madurai.[21]Maturaikkāñci, another Sangam work dated to the 3rd century CE, describes the social life of people in ancient Madurai under the Pandyas, and in the broader Tamil realm.[22][23][24]
Madurai in the Cilappatikaram
The Cilappatikaram provides us many details about Madurai. When approaching from the North (i.e., Uraiyur), Madurai is said to be located to the left of Sirumalai, near Tirumalkunram (Alagar Koil). Madurai is described as a busy city, with smoke rising from kitchens and the broad bazaar where cooks fry cakes in pans, and the smoke of sacrificial offerings, along with the scent of various flowers growing on the banks of Vaigai, including jasmine, creating a fragrant atmosphere. The city is described as surrounded by a moat, with various flags set upon the city-fortress of Madurai. It had narrow passages leading from the moat into the fortress defended by Yavana soldiers; in its bazaar were:[25]
[...] covered carts and other vehicles, ornamented chariots, coats of mail, attractive goads, gloves used in warfare, efficacious medicines, curved bludgeons, white furry fans, pig-faced shields, leather shields, shields with a picture of the forest on them, machines fitted with spears, workers in copper, bronzeworkers, newly-made ropes, garland-makers, saws made of steel, instruments for ivory cutting, burning incense pastes, and flower-work, which were so rich and innumerable [...] the wealthy street unpenetrated by enemies, full of groups of dealers in superior diamonds [...] Emeralds, semi-precious stones, gold, pearls, corals […]
—Ilango Adigal, translated by V R Ramachandra Dikshitar, The Silappadikaram (1939), Urkankadai, Canto-XIV, p. 199-208.
The tutelary goddess of Madurai, as described by the Cilappatikaram, was Madurāpati, who seems to have been another precursor to Meenakshi. Some attributes of the latter have been noted to be similar to that of Madurāpati, including a golden lotus in her hand, and her position as the family deity of Pandyas.[25] The Kallalagar Temple is referenced in the Cilappatikaram, as the abode of Tirumal (Vishnu).[25]
Maturaikkanchi
The Maturaikkanci describes a well-structured administration in Madurai.[26] Madurai is described as the capital city of the Pandyas, with fortified gates and towers over them, a deep moat, a high rampart, two large crowded bazaars, broad streets, mansions and markets.[27][28] The city's gateways were high enough to allow elephants to pass through them, and the residences of the people had pillared halls and decorated walls. Stucco images and statues were also set on the walls. The king had a large palace. In its courtyard, musk deer and swan were kept. The walls were plastered and decorated with mural paintings of flowers and ornamental designs. The king had ministers, officials and judges.[28]
Patrolmen and soldiers watched the streets, collected tolls and protected the traders from theft.[26] The city had many temples; families carried offerings to the gods in these temples, and inside these temples were musicians playing various styles of music, according to the Maturaikkanci.[27]
People of various cultures and languages lived in the city, and people belonging to the same occupation were often settled together.[28] Various flags were hoisted in the city, and musical instruments such as the parai were used to herald information and to make announcements. The city was busy with a great influx of artisans and traders. Madurai is described to have been active throughout the night too, with markets operating actively as during the daytime.[27] The people wore either embroidered garments of silk, or cotton clothes. They wore necklaces of pearls, bangles of seashells, gem-set gold rings, flower garlands and anklets. They wore flowing garments, flowers on their tufts of hair, ornate headdresses, and anklets with inlaid pearls and gemstones.[28]
After the Sangam age, most of present-day Tamil Nadu, including Madurai, came under the rule of the Kalabhra dynasty. Many Pallava and Pandya records describe how the Kalabhras defeated the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras and established their rule.[29]Jainism and Buddhism attained prominence in this period. A Dravida sangam is said to have been established by Vajranandi, a pupil of Pujyapada, at Madurai, in 470 CE.[30][31]Murthi Nayanar, a Saiva saint, is speculated to have lived in Madurai in this period.[28] Several literary works, like the Manimekalai, are assigned to this period.[28] The Kalabhra dynasty was finally overthrown by the Pandya dynasty around 590 CE.[32][33]
The Kalabhra dynasty was expelled by the Pandyas under Kadunkon, who lived around 590 CE. The Bhakti saint Sambandar sings in praise of the Sokkanāthar (Siva) of Madurai, and refers to him as "Aalavai annal", the great god of Aalavai. As another sobriquet for Madurai, Aalavai can either refer to the mythological snake Vasuki (source of the "Halahala"), which belonged to Shiva, encircling the city,[34] or to the water-filled moats surrounding it (with "Aal" meaning "water").[35]Arikesari Maravarman is the arguably the best known ruler of this period. He is said to have been victorious in various battles with the Pallavas and the Cheras, among many others. Arikesari is also identified with Koon Pandyan, mentioned as a contemporary of Sambandar.[28]
Kadunkon's other descendant, Maravarman Rajasimha I, is reported to have renovated the city of Madurai, in his time.[36] By the 7th century CE, Madurai[α] had become the sole capital of the Pandyas, who had ruled from Korkai too until the 5th century.[β][36] The Velvikudi grant of Nedunjadaiyan is a significant source of information about this period. Yanaimalai, in northeast Madurai, is heavily referenced by other works of this period.[36]Periyalvar, a Vaishnava bhakti saint, is generally considered to have won in a religious disputation in the Madurai court of the Pandya Srimara Srivallabha.[28] Successive rulers expanded the Pandya territory, and by the start of the 9th century, they controlled much of the ancient Tamilakam, until they were checked on their north by the growing Cholas.[37]
Chola dynasty (910 CE - 1100 CE)
Royal seal of Rajaraja I, depicting the emblems of the Cholas (tiger), and the Pandyas (twin fishes) as a sign of overlordship over both of them. Larger Leiden Plates, c. 1006 AD.
The Pandyas were subjugated by the Chola dynasty during the early 9th century[38], and Madurai remained under the control of the Cholas until the early 13th century, when the second Pandyan empire was established with Madurai as its capital.[38]Parantaka I was the first Imperial Chola to capture Madurai (and to assume the title "Matiraikkonda", literally "the conqueror of Madurai"), and with some struggle, the Cholas, under Rajaraja I, finally managed to subdue the Pandyas.[39] To keep the Pandyas under control, the Cholas appointed members of their own royal family as viceroys of these Pandyan provinces, known by their title "Chola-Pandya". The Pandyas ruled as rebelling subordinates to these Cholas, from Madurai.[28]
The Cholas are known to have constructed many palaces and to have made donations to the temples of the city. Rajendra I constructed a palace here, and Chola inscriptions of this period refer to thrones, gardens, chambers, ramparts and various halls of the city. Kulothunga III worshipped the deity of Aalavai (Madurai), and made various gifts to the temple.[28]
From the start of Kulottunga I's reign, the Pandyas started to rebel against the Cholas.[39] With the Pandyan Civil war of the 12th century, the Pandyas started to gradually gain power, though they remained rebelling vassals of the Chola Empire.[40] When Sadayavarman Kulasekaran I refused to pay tribute to the Cholas, the Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III, invaded Madurai, defeated the Pandyas, performed Vīrābisheka[γ] at Madurai, destroyed the coronation hall of the Pandyas, and sowed weeds on the ruins, ploughed by asses. The Pandya surrendered to Kulothunga, and Madurai remained under Chola dominance until 1216, when the successor Pandya, Maravarman Sundara Pandyan I, took control of Madurai, sacked Thanjavur and Uraiyur of the Cholas, performed Vīrābisheka at Pazhaiyarai, and drove the Cholas into exile.[41] The Cholas then surrendered to Sundara, and paid homage to him, acknowledging his supremacy. Sundara's records also refer to his throne named Malavarāyan (lord of the Mazhavas) in a palace at Madurai.[28]
A succeeding ruler, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, is considered to be the greatest ruler of the Imperial Pandyas.[28] It was under him that the Pandyan empire reached its greatest extent, stretching from Nellore in the north to Sri Lanka in the south, from the Arabian sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east, and with Madurai as its capital. He built a pillared hall (mandapa) at Alagar Koil, and built the eastern gopura of the Meenakshi Temple. Jatavarman was succeeded by Maravarman Kulasekara I.[28]
The Pandyas at their greatest extent, under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I.
Madurai, during this period, witnessed development in many fields. Local governance at village and town levels ensured efficient administration, and several tanks, canals and sluices were built.[28] Land revenue was the dominant form of income for the country, and temples were entitled to a share of these revenues for assuring their management. Several trade groups operated in the city, including the Manigramam, the Anjuvannam, and a branch of the Ayyavole's Five Hundred. [28]
Madurai came under the Mādakulamkīl province, centred around the Madakulam water tank. This tank is mentioned to have assumed great significance, with contemporary literary works of the period referencing it. Other places of this province included Thiruparankundram and Kodimangalam.[28] The Meenakshi Temple, which underwent expansion during this period, with Meenakshi being referred to as "Tirukāmakottattu Āludaiya Nāchiyār", and Sundaresvara (Shiva) referred to as "Tiruālavāiyudaiya Nayanār". Various types of donations were made to the temples, for the maintenance of lamps, rituals, mathas, festivals, and for its workers.[28] The Kazimar Big Mosque is also said to have been constructed during this age, by Kazi Syed Tajuddin, in the late 13th century.[42]
Marco Polo's visit
Marco Polo, the Venetian explorer, is considered to have visited India during the reign of Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, and mentions the Pandyan empire to be prospering (in his time).[43] He speaks of five Pandya brothers ruling the domain together, and Sundara Pandyan being crowned the king of the country. He refers to Madurai as "Shehr Mandi", likely a borrowing of Persian "Shahr Pandi".[δ] He observes that the country was known for its pearls, and that the king had a great treasure from his entitlement of these pearls.[43] He describes the customs of the country, that the people, including the king, wear a piece of cloth in all, and that the king's ornaments contain emeralds, rubies, sapphires, gold, pearls, and other gemstones; the king also had a string of pearls (considered to be a japamala). The king had his own trusted āpattudavikal, his trusted bodyguards. They accompany him to death, and shall cast themselves into the cremation fire of the dead king, in a belief of accompanying him beyond life.[43]
Marco Polo also mentions that the people of this country cover the walls of their house with cow dung. People of all classes, including the rulers, follow a custom of sitting on the ground alone.[43] Rice was the major crop back then; the people were required to use the right hand to eat, and use their own drinking vessels. The nobles slept on mats made of cane grass and Cyperus rotundus (see Pattamadai Mat), while the commoners slept on the floor. Most people were trained to become traders young in their lives.[43]
After the death of Kulasekara Pandian (1268–1308 CE), his sons Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV were engaged in a battle for the throne. Malik Kafur, who was involved in the siege of Warangal, heard of the Pandyan kingdom, its wealth, and the internal conflicts in the kingdom. With permission from Alauddin Khalji, he marched towards Madurai, reaching the Pandyan frontiers by March 1311 CE. As he marched towards Madurai, plundering and raiding cities on the way, he was opposed by the guerilla tactics of the Pandyas. Nevertheless, he raided Madurai on 10 April 1311 CE.[44] The Pandyas had fled the city before his arrival, along with their royal family and their treasures. Kafur captured the few elephants left in the whole city, at the Meenakshi Temple, plundered the temple, and set fire to it. Kafur had also plundered the Nataraja Temple of Chidambaram (which had a gilded roof), and had captured 250 elephants there. Malik Kafur then retreated back.[45]
After Malik Kafur's invasion, the civil war of the Pandyas was resumed again. Kulasekhara's son-in-law, Ravivarman, of the VenadCheras, took advantage of the conditions, overran Madurai, into Kanchi. During the reign of Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah, Khusrau Khan led another expedition to Madurai. With these subsequent invasions, the Pandyas lost their Madurai stronghold. They ruled from the southern Pandya country, and occasionally led futile attacks on the new rulers of Madurai.[46]
After the expedition of Khusrau Khan, Madurai was invaded by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and the city came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, under the Tughluq dynasty.[38][46] The Governor of Madurai, Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, rebelled against the Delhi Sultanate, and declared his independence, establishing the Madurai Sultanate in 1335 CE. After several years of unstable governance due to internal conflicts, the Madurai Sultanate met its end in 1378 CE, defeated by the Vijayanagara Empire.[47] By the end of the 15th century, the Pandyas, who had been ruling over Madurai for over a millennium, had lost the city forever, and while one branch moved over to Tenkasi, several other Pandya branches migrated to the southern parts of today's Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[48]
The main sources of information about this period come from several Muslim scholars, including Ibn Battuta,[49]Amir Khusrau, Abdul Malik Isami, Abulfeda, and Ziauddin Barani.[46] Madurai is referred to as "Mathura" or "Mardi", and the city was said to have a near-impenetrable fortress surrounding it.[49] Ibn Battuta speaks of an epidemic in Madurai that killed the population, and that the fourth Sultan of Madurai, Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad Damghani, too died of it.[49] He also condemns Ghiyas-ud-Din impaling Tamil victims on sharpened stakes.[49][28] The last Sultan of Madurai, Alaudin Sikandar Shah's dargah, the Thiruparankuram Dargah, is located in Thiruparankundram, Madurai.[50]
Tamil chronicles like the Madurai Sthaneekar varalaru, the Maduraittalavaralaru, and the Pandiyan Chronicle, provide more information on the temples of this period, subjected to destruction, and their restoration later on. To protect the deity of the Meenakshi temple, the administrators and the workers of the temple constructed a stone wall covering the garbhagriha, and set up another idol in front of it at the ardhamandapa, so that the invaders shall mistake the idol for the original deity, and shall desecrate the same, thus saving the original idol. They also buried other statues (utsava murtis) underground, to recover them later. The invaders destroyed 14 gopuras of the temple, and destructed many parts of the temple, while the west gopura, the sannadhi gopura, and the inner parts of the temple, including the ardhamandapa, escaped destruction.[28]
Vijayanagara dynasty and Madurai Nayaks (1371 CE - 1736 CE)
Kumara Kampana, the son of Bukka Raya I, led the Vijayanagara forces against the Madurai Sultanate, and overthrew the Sultanate in 1371 CE.[51] He appointed many chiefs known as "nayakkanmars", and himself assumed the title of "udaiyar", the viceroy of Madurai.[28] Successive viceroys were members of the royal family, and this practice continued until the reign of Krishnadevaraya. In 1385 CE, Harihara II appointed his own sons to govern various parts of his empire, for efficient administration of the same, and Virupaksha Raya was appointed as the governor of the southern domains, areas surrounding Madurai. Madurai was also under the governance of the Banas, who were subordinates to the Vijayanagara rulers.[28]
After generations of constant changes in governance, Madurai came under the governance of the Nayaks, deputies of the Vijayanagara kings. By 1532 CE, they had started administering Madurai by themselves.[47] The Nayaks ruled over Madurai for over 200 years, with the capital city switching between Madurai and Tiruchirapally, from around 1532 CE to 1736 CE.[48] The dynasty was noted for its achievements in arts, cultural and administrative reforms, revitalization of temples previously ransacked by the Delhi Sultanate, and the introduction of a new architectural style, the Nayaka style Vijayanagara architecture, epitomized by the Thirumalai Nayaka Palace.[52][53] The dynasty consisted of 13 rulers, of whom nine were kings, two were queens, and two were joint-kings. The most notable among them were the founder Viswanatha Nayak, king Tirumala Nayaka and queen Rani Mangammal.[53]
Tirumala Nayaka was initially loyal to Vijayanagara, but was in conflict with Sriranga III later on. This led to resentment on both sides, culminating in Tirumala assserting his freedom.[52] Tirumala made significant contributions to art and architecture. In his period, exclusive of the Nayaka Palace, many repairs and renovations to the Meenakshi temple, and the construction of the Pudumandapam there, took place.[54] The Nayaks are known to have restructured Madurai according to the Shilpa Shastras, and to have added more concentric streets around the Meenakshi Temple (especially, the Masi streets).[48] The Nayaks also restructured the Chithirai festival to its current form, and Tirumalai Nayaka is known to have established the annual Tepporchavam festival in the Vandiyur Teppakulam.[55][56]
In 1637 CE, under the rule of Tirumala Nayaka, Madurai was refortified (its previous fortification being that of the Pandyas), and a moat was dug. 72 bastions were positioned over this fort, and these were assigned to 72 battalions, each of these sending a certain number of troops to guard a bastion. These individual battalions were each assigned to a separate chief, known as a Polygar. These Polygars, feudatories to the Nayaks, later ruled their own domains (palayam) independently, until they were brought under control by the British Raj.[52][57][58]
Rani Mangammal ruled as the regent from 1689 CE to 1706 CE. She had liberal religious views, donating lands to temples and dargahs alike. She is known to have initiated the "Unjal tiruvizha", the swinging festival, at the Meenakshi Temple. She granted endowments and undertook many public works at Madurai. After her death, the Nayaks slowly began losing their power.[48] After internal conflicts took over, Chanda Sahib, sent by the Carnatic Sultanate, took over Madurai, thus ending the Nayaka rule of Madurai.[53]
Local autonomy largely prevailed in this period, with some leaders like Viswanatha Nayaka and Tirumalai Nayaka actively developing public infrastructure. A large immigration of Telugu people, the Saurashtra people and the Kannada people into Madurai took place under the Vijayanagara rulers and the Nayaks, and cultural assimilation of customs observed by the Kannada people, the Telugu people, the Muslims, the Saurashtrians and the native Tamils came about.[28] A custom of privileges and honour was introduced in this period, considered essential for social ranking, and this custom survives in the modern period in fragments. Females were clad in simple drapings of saree, while the males dressed in plain veshtis (dhotis). Flowers were used for ornamental purposes by women, while men were often accompanied by an angavastram.[28]
The Vira Kamparaya Saritam, popularly known as Maduravijayam, was written by Gangadevi, the wife of Kumara Kampanna. The text is about Kampana's invasion of Madurai, which she considers to be the liberation of the city from the Sultanate. She says of Madurai under the Sultanate:[51]
[...] I very much lament for what has happened to the groves in Madurai. The coconut trees have all been cut and in their place are to be seen rows of iron spikes with human skulls dangling at the points. [...] In the highways which were once charming with the sounds of anklets of beautiful women, are now heard the ear-piercing noises of Brahmanas being dragged, bound in iron fetters and then beheaded. [...] Yama takes his undue toll of death on what are left of the lives if undestroyed by the [Tughlaqs].
—Gangadevi, translated by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya, Madhura Vijayam
Other devotional works, including the Tiruvilayadal puranam of Paranjothi, and the Meenakshi pillaitamil by Kumaraguruparar were written during this period.[54] The development of the cult around Meenakshi, spanning several centuries, took its final form in this period, and Meenakshi is still considered to be the mythological tutelary goddess of Madurai.[14][28][54]
After the end of Nayak rule in 1736 CE, Madurai was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib (1740– 1754 CE), the Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan (1725– 1764 CE) in the middle of 18th century.[14]
Colonial British Rule (1801 CE - 1947 CE)
Company rule and British Raj
Hand coloured antique wood engraving drawn by W. Purser (1858) shows Madurai city as seen from the north bank of the Vaigai riverRuins of the Thirumalai Nayak Palace in Madurai, in 1792.
In 1801, Madurai came under the direct control of the British East India Company and was annexed to the Madras Presidency.[59][60] The British government made donations to the Meenakshi temple and participated in the Hindu festivals during the early part of their rule.[61] The city evolved as a political and industrial complex through the 19th and 20th centuries to become a district headquarters of a larger Madurai district.[61] In 1836-37, the Pandyan and the Nayaka forts, which had been deserted for almost two centuries, started to crumble; the moat was filled up with wastewater. To allow for the expansion of the city, the old fortifications around the city were demolished by the British, under the orders of the then Collector, John Blackburne. To cater for the large workforce needed to demolish the fort, the government issued a statement, assuring the people, that the land under the fort they help to clear up, shall be granted to them.[57][62] The moat was drained and the debris was used to construct new streets– Veli, Marret and Perumal Maistry streets.[63][64][58] Four landmarks of the fort were left: the West gate, the Eastern gateway (Vitta vasal),[58] and two sculptures of the fort's walls - Yanaikkal and Simmakkal, which still remain in the city.[57][65] The basic plan of the old town was maintained - all the streets emanated from the Meenakshi Temple, with concentric streets around it. The newer, expanded town, was planned and developed in the subsequent centuries.[57]
The city was constituted as a municipality in 1866 CE.[66] The British government faced initial hiccups during the earlier period of the establishment of municipality in land ceiling and tax collection in Madurai and Dindigul districts under the direct administration of the officers of the government.[67] The city, along with the district, was resurveyed between 1880 and 1885 CE and subsequently, five municipalities were constituted in the two districts and six taluk boards were set up for local administration.[67] Police stations were established in Madurai city, housing the headquarters of the District Superintendent.[67] Madurai was expanded under the British rule.
Indian independence movement
It was in Madurai, in 1921, that Mahatma Gandhi, pre-eminent leader of Indian nationalism in British-ruled India, first adopted the loin cloth as his mode of dress after seeing agricultural labourers wearing it.[68] Leaders of the independence movement in Madurai included N.M.R. Subbaraman,[69][70]Karumuttu Thiagarajan Chettiar and Mohammad Ismail Sahib.[71] The Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act passed by the government of Madras Presidency under C. Rajagopalachari in 1939 removed restrictions prohibiting Shanars and Dalits from entering Hindu temples. The temple entry movement was first led in Madurai Meenakshi temple by independence activist A. Vaidyanatha Iyer in 1939.[72][73]
Post-independence (1947 CE - present)
The Municipality of Madurai was upgraded as the Madurai Municipal Corporation in the year 1971 to account for population increase and administrative extension.[74]
↑Maiyilai Seeni Venkatasamy. "தமிழியல் ஆய்வு: சொல்லாய்வுகள்"[Studies on Tamil Literature: Lexicography]. Tamil Virtual Academy (in Tamil). Retrieved 25 February 2026.
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