The Igbesanmwan is a hereditary guild of ivory carvers in the Benin Kingdom, a pre-colonial African state located in present-day Edo State, Nigeria. Members of the Igbesanmwan guild hold the responsibility of crafting ivory items, including masks, tusks, staffs, leopards, and various other symbols denoting royal authority and eminence, for the Oba (king) and the royal court. In addition to their ivory craftsmanship, the Igbesanmwan possess proficiency in working with a range of other materials, such as wood, brass, and coral. This guild is recognised as one of the most ancient and esteemed in Benin, with their artistic work being widely appreciated for its aesthetic appeal and technical mastery.
The exact origins of the Igbesanmwan guild remain somewhat unclear, but historical accounts suggest its establishment dates back to the 13th century, concurrent with the founding of the Benin Kingdom by Eweka I.[1] In accordance with oral tradition, Eweka I, the son of Oranmiyan, a Yoruba prince from Ile-Ife, and Erimwinde, a princess from the Edo kingdom of Igodomigodo, inherited the ivory carving skills from his father. Eweka I subsequently imparted these skills to his son, Ewedo, who ascended as the second Oba of Benin. Under Ewedo's rule, select relatives and loyalists were appointed as the inaugural Igbesanmwan carvers, endowing them with exclusive rights to craft ivory pieces designated for the royal court.
Throughout the rule of subsequent Obas of Benin, the Igbesanmwan guild enjoyed a period of prosperity. They were actively patronised by the Obas and tasked with producing a diverse array of ivory artifacts for ceremonial and ritual purposes.[2] Notably, the Igbesanmwan guild held a significant role within the political and social structure of the Benin Kingdom.[3] They were esteemed members of the Uzama (kingmakers) and occupied seats in the Ogiso (council of elders). The Igbesanmwan guild was further involved in trade and diplomacy, accompanying the Oba during his travels and presenting ivory gifts to foreign rulers and dignitaries.[4]
In 1897, the Igbesanmwan guild faced a profound setback when the British invaded and pillaged the Benin Kingdom, resulting in the destruction of numerous cultural and historical monuments.[5][6] The British also confiscated a multitude of ivory objects from the royal palace, subsequently selling them to museums and collectors worldwide.[7][2] Tragically, many Igbesanmwan carvers lost their lives or were exiled during the invasion, while survivors contended with a decline in patronage and diminished prestige.[8] Colonial policies aimed at discouraging traditional art forms and promoting Western education and Christianity further weakened the Igbesanmwan guild.[2]
Nevertheless, the Igbesanmwan guild exhibited resilience, adapting to the changing times. Some Igbesanmwan carvers persevered in their craft, passing it on to their descendants.[4] Others diversified into alternative forms of art or sought various occupations.[9] A segment of Igbesanmwan carvers actively participated in nationalist movements advocating for Nigeria's independence from British colonial rule in 1960. Post-independence, certain Igbesanmwan carvers reestablished connections with the restored Oba of Benin and received support from the Nigerian government and cultural institutions.[8]
Organisation
The Igbesanmwan guild maintains a hierarchical structure primarily based on seniority, skill, and lineage. Leading the guild is the Ineh n'Igbesanmwan (leader of ivory carvers),[10] who is appointed by the Oba of Benin from the ranks of the most experienced and senior carvers.[11][12] Responsible for the guild's administration is the Iyase n'Igbesanmwan, overseeing matters such as rule-setting, dispute resolution, resource allocation, and external representation. The present Ineh n'Igbesanmwan is Chief David Omoregie.[13]
The hierarchy extends below the Ineh n'Igbesanmwan with various ranks of carvers, including the Ogie n'Igbesanmwan (king of ivory carvers), Enogie n'Igbesanmwan (duke of ivory carvers), Edion n'Igbesanmwan (elder of ivory carvers), Omo n'Ogie n'Igbesanmwan (son of the king of ivory carvers), and Omo n'Edion n'Igbesanmwan (son of the elder of ivory carvers). These rankings depend on the quality and quantity of a carver's work, in addition to the number and status of apprentices under their tutelage. Higher-ranked carvers assume more privileges and responsibilities, including receiving substantial commissions, supervising lower-ranked carvers, and instructing newcomers in new techniques.[14]
Membership in the Igbesanmwan guild is open to individuals belonging to the Edo ethnic group, tracing their lineage back to the original Igbesanmwan carvers initially appointed by Oba Ewedo. Membership is hereditary and patrilineal, with the passage from father to son.[15][16] While women are not eligible for formal membership, they can partake in specific aspects of the carving process, such as polishing, painting, or decorating, often assisting their husbands or fathers. The Igbesanmwan guild adheres to a strict code of conduct governing member behaviour and ethics. This includes showing respect to the Oba and elders, maintaining loyalty and discretion, avoiding plagiarism and rivalry, and paying homage to ancestors and deities.[14]
Art
The Igbesanmwan guild specialises in ivory art that reflects various aspects of the history, culture, and religion of the Benin Kingdom.[17] They craft ivory objects for a range of purposes, including masks, tusks, staff, leopards, and other objects.[18]
Ivory masks created by the Igbesanmwan often depict the Oba or his ancestors, particularly his mother. These masks are utilised during ceremonies and rituals, including the Igue festival, which celebrates the Oba's divine kingship. They also serve as symbols of royal authority and protection, sometimes displayed in shrines or altars.[19][20] Notably, one of the well-known ivory masks is that of Queen Idia, the mother of Oba Esigie, who played a crucial role in his victory over his brother in a 16th-century civil war.[21]
The Igbesanmwan craft ivory tusks that feature scenes from the history, mythology, and cosmology of the Benin Kingdom.[18] These tusks are typically mounted on wooden or brass stands and placed on either side of the Oba's throne or in his palace. They also serve as gifts or tribute to other rulers or allies. The tusks are carved in a spiral manner, with each section representing a different theme or story.[6]
Ivory staffs carved by the Igbesanmwan symbolise the Oba's power and prestige. These staffs are held by the Oba or his officials during processions or ceremonies, including coronations and funerals. They can also serve as tools or weapons during times of both war and peace.[22] The staffs are adorned with various motifs and figures, including animals, plants, humans, or deities.[23]
Ivory leopards crafted by the Igbesanmwan represent the Oba's strength and courage.[15] These leopards are often placed on pedestals or platforms in front of the Oba's throne or in his palace.[15] They can also be used as offerings or sacrifices to the gods or ancestors.[15] The leopards are carved with meticulous attention to detail, featuring spots, whiskers, claws, and teeth.[6]
The Igbesanmwan guild also creates various other ivory objects that hold diverse functions and meanings within the Benin Kingdom. These include horns, bells, combs, bracelets, pendants, spoons, boxes, chess pieces, musical instruments, and more.[6]
The Igbesanmwan employ a variety of techniques and styles to craft their ivory objects. They utilise tools such as knives, chisels, files, drills, saws, and more to cut, shape, smooth, polish, and engrave their ivory pieces.[9] Additionally, they use pigments, dyes, metals, beads, shells, feathers, and various materials for colouring, embellishing, or adorning their ivory works.[6] Their styles encompass realism, abstraction, symbolism, and geometric patterns, allowing them to express their artistic vision and cultural identity. They also draw inspiration from other cultures, including the Yoruba, Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French, influencing their ivory art.[6]
Culture
The Igbesanmwan guild encompasses not only an artistic group but also a cultural and religious community with its own traditions, values, beliefs, and practices that influence their way of life and perspective. Some of these aspects include:
Ancestry
The Igbesanmwan deeply respect their ancestors, attributing the origins of their ivory carving skills and the guardianship of their guild to them. They pay homage to their ancestors through rituals, sacrifices, and the preservation of genealogical records. In addition, they create ivory objects that portray or commemorate their ancestors, such as masks or staffs. The Igbesanmwan believe that their ancestors have the power to bestow blessings or curses based on their actions and attitudes.[23]
Spirituality
The Igbesanmwan hold beliefs in a variety of spiritual forces that have an impact on their lives and craftsmanship.[14] They offer reverence to the Olokun, the deity of the sea and the patron of ivory carvers.[24] They also show devotion to other gods and goddesses, including Osanobua, the supreme creator; Ogun, the god of iron and war; Orunmila, the god of wisdom and divination; Oshun, the goddess of love and beauty; and Esu, the trickster and messenger. Furthermore, they acknowledge the influence of nature spirits, which encompass trees, rivers, mountains, and animals.
Rituals
The Igbesanmwan engage in various rituals to establish a connection with the spiritual realm and seek its favour. These rituals encompass activities like prayer, fasting, purification, offering, chanting, dancing, and singing. The Igbesanmwan perform these rituals before, during, and after carving ivory objects. Additionally, rituals are conducted during significant life events or guild-related occasions, including births, deaths, initiations, promotions, festivals, or periods of conflict.[23]
Symbols
The Igbesanmwan employ a range of symbols to convey their identity and values. These symbols are integrated into their ivory objects to communicate meanings or messages to viewers or users.[25] They also utilise symbols on their bodies or clothing to indicate their status or affiliations. Some of the key symbols used by the Igbesanmwan are:
The leopard: Symbolising strength, courage, royalty, and nobility, the Igbesanmwan carve ivory leopards for the Oba or as representations of their own power and prestige.[4]
The crocodile: This symbolises wisdom, cunning, adaptability, and survival, reflecting the intelligence and resilience of the Igbesanmwan. Ivory crocodiles are crafted by them or for others to signify these qualities.[15]
The snake: A symbol of fertility, renewal, transformation, and change, the Igbesanmwan carve ivory snakes to convey creativity and innovation.[14]
The bird: Representing freedom, mobility, spirituality, and divinity, ivory birds crafted by the Igbesanmwan symbolise independence and spiritual connection.[15]
Legacy
The Igbesanmwan guild has made an impact on the history and culture of the Benin Kingdom and beyond.[2] They have played a key role in developing and preserving the Benin Kingdom's artistic heritage and identity.[2] Their ivory art is widely recognised for its quality, diversity, originality, and sophistication, making it a notable example of African art.[2] This artistic tradition has also left its mark on and served as a source of inspiration for other artists and cultures, including the Yoruba, Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French. Additionally, scholars, collectors, museums, and tourists from around the world have taken an interest in and admired their ivory art.[2]
The Igbesanmwan guild has also been instrumental in promoting and preserving the cultural and historical heritage of the Benin Kingdom.[26] Through their ivory art, they have documented and conveyed the history, mythology, cosmology, and values of the Benin Kingdom. They have upheld these traditions, rituals, beliefs, and practices through their guild organisation and code of conduct. Furthermore, they have supported efforts to restore and revive key elements of the Benin Kingdom's political and social structure and institutions, such as the Oba, the Uzama, and the Ogiso.
The Igbesanmwan guild has encountered and surmounted various challenges and changes in their environment and circumstances.[27] They have withstood colonialism, imperialism, slavery, war, looting, exploitation, and discrimination.[22] To adapt to evolving materials, markets, audiences, and tastes, they have innovated their ivory art.[20] They have also diversified their artistic output and explored other forms of art and occupations.
Today, the Igbesanmwan guild remains active but their wealth has declined.[27] They continue to practice and pass on their ivory carving skills to their descendants and apprentices.[4] Their ivory art is still created and exhibited for various purposes and events.
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