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Giulio Cesare Andrea "Julius" Evola was an Italian far-right philosopher. Evola regarded his values as aristocratic, monarchist, masculine, traditionalist, heroic, and defiantly reactionary. An eccentric thinker in Fascist Italy, he also had ties to Nazi Germany; in the post-war era, he was an ideological mentor of the Italian neo-fascist and militant Right.
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The "Manifesto of Race", otherwise referred to as the Charter of Race or the Racial Manifesto, was a manifesto which was promulgated by the Council of Ministers on the 14th of July 1938, its promulgation was followed by the enactment, in October 1938, of the Racial Laws in Fascist Italy (1922–1943) and the Italian colonial empire (1923–1947).
Italian fascism, also known as classical fascism or simply fascism, is the original fascist ideology as developed in Italy by Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini. The ideology is associated with a series of two political parties led by Benito Mussolini: the National Fascist Party (PNF), which ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 until 1943, and the Republican Fascist Party (PFR) that ruled the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to 1945. Italian fascism is also associated with the post-war Italian Social Movement (MSI) and subsequent Italian neo-fascist movements.
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Il Popolo d'Italia was an Italian newspaper published from 15 November 1914 until 24 July 1943. It was founded by Benito Mussolini as a pro-war newspaper during World War I, and it later became the main newspaper of the Fascist movement in Italy after the war. It published editions every day with the exception of Mondays.
The "Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals", by the actualist philosopher Giovanni Gentile in 1925, formally established the political and ideologic foundations of Italian Fascism. It justifies the political violence of the Blackshirt paramilitaries of the National Fascist Party, in the revolutionary realisation of Italian Fascism as the authoritarian and totalitarian rėgime of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini, who ruled Italy as Il Duce, from 1922 to 1943.
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The Italian racial laws, otherwise referred to as the Racial Laws, were a series of laws which were promulgated by the Mussolini government in Fascist Italy (1922–1943) from 1938 to 1943 in order to enforce racial discrimination and segregation in the Kingdom of Italy. The main victims of the Racial Laws were Italian Jews and the native African inhabitants of the Italian colonial empire (1923–1947). In the aftermath of Mussolini's fall from power, the Badoglio government suppressed the laws. They remained enforced and were made more severe in the territories ruled by the Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) until the end of the Second World War.
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Initially, Fascist Italy did not enact comprehensive racist policies like those policies which were enacted by its World War II Axis partner Nazi Germany. Italy's National Fascist Party leader, Benito Mussolini, expressed different views on the subject of race over the course of his career. In an interview conducted in 1932 at the Palazzo di Venezia in Rome, he said "Race? It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today". By 1938, however, he began to actively support racist policies in the Italian Fascist regime, as evidenced by his endorsement of the "Manifesto of Race", the seventh point of which stated that "it is time that Italians proclaim themselves to be openly racist", although Mussolini said that the Manifesto was endorsed "entirely for political reasons", in deference to Nazi German wishes. The "Manifesto of Race", which was published on 14 July 1938, paved the way for the enactment of the Racial Laws. Leading members of the National Fascist Party (PNF), such as Dino Grandi and Italo Balbo, reportedly opposed the Racial Laws. Balbo, in particular, regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with fascism and he staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws. After 1938, discrimination and persecution intensified and became an increasingly important hallmark of Italian Fascist ideology and policies. Nevertheless, Mussolini and the Italian military did not consistently apply the laws adopted in the Manifesto of Race. In 1943, Mussolini expressed regret for the endorsement, saying that it could've been avoided. After the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, the Italian Fascist government implemented strict racial segregation between white people and black people in Ethiopia.
Edoardo Zavattari was an Italian zoologist who was a director at the Institute of Zoology in the Sapienza University of Rome from 1935 to 1953. He supported fascism and antisemitism on the basis of his ideas from biology and was a signatory to the "Manifesto della Razza".
Fascist mysticism was a current of political and religious thought in Fascist Italy, based on Fideism, a belief that faith existed without reason, and that Fascism should be based on a mythology and spiritual mysticism. A School of Fascist Mysticism was founded in Milan on April 10, 1930, and active until 1943, and its main objective was the training of future Fascist leaders, indoctrinated in the study of various Fascist intellectuals who tried to abandon the purely political to create a spiritual understanding of Fascism. Fascist mysticism in Italy developed through the work of Niccolò Giani with the decisive support of Arnaldo Mussolini.
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The Kingdom of Italy was governed by the National Fascist Party from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as prime minister and dictator. The Italian Fascists imposed totalitarian rule and crushed political and intellectual opposition, while promoting economic modernization, traditional social values and a rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church.
La Difesa della Razza was a Fascist magazine which was published in Rome between 1938 and 1943 during the Fascist rule in Italy. Its subtitle was Scienza, Documentazione, Polemica. It played a significant role in the implementation of the racial ideology following the invasion of Ethiopia and the introduction of the racial laws in 1938.
References
- 1 2 3 4 Meir Michaelis (1998). "Mussolini's unofficial mouthpiece: Telesio Interlandi: Il Tevere and the evolution of Mussolini's anti-Semitism". Journal of Modern Italian Studies. 3 (3): 217–240. doi:10.1080/13545719808454979.
- ↑ "Fight on Y.M.C.A. is Revived in Italy". The New York Times . 30 January 1927. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ↑ Mabel Berezin (March 1994). "Cultural Form and Political Meaning: State-subsidized Theater, Ideology, and the Language of Style in Fascist Italy". American Journal of Sociology . 99 (5): 1268. doi:10.1086/230411. S2CID 144859971.
- ↑ Claire Thomas (August 2016). "A Colonial Eye on Egypt: Ungaretti's Writing for Gazzetta del Popolo, 1931". Italian Studies. 71 (3): 384. doi:10.1080/00751634.2016.1224540. S2CID 158009667.
- ↑ George Talbot (2006). "Alberto Moravia and Italian Fascism: Censorship, Racism and Le ambizioni sbagliate". Modern Italy. 11 (2): 143. doi:10.1080/13532940600709239. S2CID 145523984.
- ↑ Aaron Gillette (Winter 2002). "Guido Landra and the Office of Racial Studies in Fascist Italy". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 16 (3): 359. doi:10.1093/hgs/16.3.357.
- ↑ Christian Goeschel (2012). "Italia docet? The Relationship between Italian Fascism and Nazism Revisited". European History Quarterly . 42 (3): 486. doi:10.1177/0265691412448167. hdl: 1885/59166 . S2CID 143799280.
- ↑ Francesco Cassata (2011). Building the New Man. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 9789639776890.
- ↑ Stefano Luconi (2004). "Recent trends in the study of Italian antisemitism under the Fascist regime". Patterns of Prejudice . 38 (1): 8. doi:10.1080/0031322032000185550. S2CID 144743081.
- ↑ "People". Time Magazine . 24 October 1938. Retrieved 26 June 2022.