Individual psychology

Last updated

Individual psychology (German : Individualpsychologie) is a psychological method and school of thought founded by the Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler. [1] [2] The English edition of Adler's work on the subject, The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (1924), is a collection of papers and lectures given mainly between 1912 and 1914. [3] [4] These papers provide a comprehensive overview of Adler's Personality Theory, in which the situation that one is born into plays an important part in personality development. [5]

Contents

In developing individual psychology, Adler broke away from Freud's psychoanalytic school. [6] [7] While Adler initially termed his work "free psychoanalysis", he later rejected the label of "psychoanalyst". [8] His method, which involved a holistic approach to character study, [9] informed some approaches to counselling and psychiatric strategies in the late 20th-century. [10]

The term "individual" is used to emphasize that a person is an "indivisible" whole, not a collection of separate parts or conflicting forces. This theory rejects a reductionist view of human behaviour and instead focuses on the individual's unique and unified personality. Individual psychology also heavily emphasizes the social context of a person's life, asserting that individuals are fundamentally social beings and that their well-being is tied to their sense of belonging and their contributions to the community, a concept Adler called social interest.

Adler's psychology

Adler's psychology diverges from the Freudian view, which bases a person's psychology on sex and libido.[ citation needed ] Instead, Adler's psychology focuses on the individual's evaluation of the world with attention to societal factors. According to Adler, a person must confront three forces: the societal, the love-related, and the vocational. [11] These confrontations shape the final nature of a personality. Adler based his theories on a person's pre-adulthood development, emphasizing factors such as unwanted children[ further explanation needed ], physical deformities at birth, and birth order.[ citation needed ]

Adler's theory is similar to the humanistic psychology of Abraham Maslow, who acknowledged Adler's influence on his theories. [11] Both assert that the individual human being is the best judge of their own needs, desires, interests, and growth. [11] [ relevant? ]

The Theory of Compensation, Resignation, and Over-Compensation

Adler hypothesized that feelings of inferiority are the prime drivers of human motivation. [12] He theorized that personality traits develop as a response to external influences, with individuals striving to overcome perceived deficiencies. [12] Adler identified several key mechanisms through which individuals adapt to these influences.

Compensation

Adler introduced the concept of compensation and defined it as the effort to counteract physical or psychological deficiencies. [13] Additionally, Adler suggested that psychological disturbances such as neurotic behavior could be defensive behaviors occurring in individuals experiencing psychological distress. [14]

Sofie Lazarsfeld, a student of Adler's, expanded on this theory within developmental psychology. She argued that, in typical development, a child receives encouragement and learns to address difficulties through persistence and cooperation. A well-adjusted individual, in her view, feels socially integrated and accepts imperfection.[ full citation needed ]

However, Lazarsfeld noted that under adverse conditions, a child experiencing feelings of inferiority may resort to compensation—or overcompensation—by excessively striving to overcome perceived weaknesses. While this can lead to achievement, it may also result in psychological difficulties. [15] [16]

Resignation

Some individuals respond to feelings of inadequacy by passively accepting their limitations. This resignation may lead to disengagement from challenges, potentially hindering personal development. [17]

Over-compensation

In cases of overcompensation, individuals push beyond typical developmental limits, sometimes achieving exceptional success, as seen in historical figures like Demosthenes, who overcame a speech disorder to become a renowned orator. [18]

However, Adler cautioned that an excessive fixation on compensating for perceived deficiencies could lead to neurotic behavior, emphasizing the role of external factors in personality formation.

Primary and secondary feelings of inferiority

The primary feeling of inferiority is the original feeling of smallness, weakness, and dependency an infant or child experiences. Recognizing that this feeling was normal, was fundamental to Adler's thinking and a key part of his break with Freud. [19] A feeling of inferiority typically motivates development. However, a child may develop an exaggerated feeling of inferiority due to physiological difficulties, handicaps, and inappropriate parenting (including abuse or over-pampering), or cultural and possibly economic barriers.

The secondary inferiority feeling is an adult's feeling of insufficiency resulting from adopting an unrealistically high or impossible compensatory goal, often related to perfection. The degree of distress is proportional to the subjective distance from that goal. Additionally, the residue of the original, primary feeling of inferiority may persist. An inferiority complex is a consistent feeling of inadequacy, often leading to timidity, withdrawal from society, overcompensation, or competitiveness. [20]

Feeling of community

Translated from German, Gemeinschaftsgefühl can variably refer to community feeling, social interest, social feeling, or social sense. The feeling of community is the recognition and acceptance of the interconnectedness of all people, experienced on affective, cognitive, and behavioral levels, and was increasingly emphasized in Adler's later writings. [21]

At the affective level, it manifests as a deep feeling of belonging to the human race and empathy with others. At the cognitive level, it is experienced as a recognition of interdependence with others, meaning the welfare of any one individual depends on the welfare of everyone. At the behavioral level, these thoughts and feelings translate into actions aimed at self-development and cooperative, helpful movements directed toward others. The concept of "feeling of community" therefore encompasses the full development of individuals' capacities, a process that is personally fulfilling and results in people who contribute to one another.

Withdrawal

In cases of discouragement, individuals who feel incapable of developing in a real and socially valid way create a fantasy of superiority—what Adler termed "an attempt at a planned final compensation and a (secret) life plan" [22] —in a secluded area of life, offering shelter from failure and loss of prestige. This fictional world, sustained by the need to protect an anxious ego, by private logic at odds with reason, and by a schema of apperception that interprets, filters, and suppresses real-world data, is fragile. [23] It is vulnerable to mounting internal tension and external assaults. [24] The "will to be or become" is replaced by the "will to seem".

Holism

Central to the Adlerian approach is viewing the personality as a whole, not as the result of component forces, hence the term individual (indivisible) psychology. [25] Adlerians take a stance that bridges the nature-nurture debate by seeing the developing individual creating their personality in response to both nature and nurture, but not entirely determined by them. The self-created personality operates subjectively and idiosyncratically. The individual strives for both self-development and social meaning—what Adler called "the concept of social usefulness and the general well-being of humanity" [26] —expressed in a sense of belonging, usefulness, contribution, and even cosmic consciousness. [27]

Classical Adlerian psychology today

According to contemporary Adlerian practitioners, the model is considered relevant by practitioners in modern therapeutic contexts through emphasizing community involvement for mental well-being. The modern movement identifies as holistic and values-based, incorporating both depth psychology and practical, democratic principles in daily life. [28] Modern Adlerian organizations describe their mission as focused on psychological well-being and democratic principles in personal and social life. [29] The model assumes that the psyche is not internally conflicted but is oriented toward unity. [30]

Henri Ellenberger wrote of "the slow and continuous penetration of Adlerian insights into contemporary psychological thinking". [31]

Adlerian practitioners remain active in the 21st century, some using an eclectic technique integrating elements of other therapies, from the psychodynamic to the cognitive, while others focus on a more classical approach. [32]

With a foundation in Alfred Adler's original teachings and therapeutic style, the modern movement incorporates contributions from Kurt Adler, Alexander Müller, Lydia Sicher, Sophia de Vries, and Anthony Bruck; the self-actualization research of Abraham Maslow, who Adler mentored; [33] and the innovations of Henry Stein. [30]

Striving for significance

Adlerian theory proposes that human behavior is generally oriented toward growth, completion, and security. This may take a negative turn into striving for superiority or power over others, but it is primarily about finding one's place in the world and feeling a sense of belonging. [34] Many reference works mistakenly identify only the negative "striving for power" [35] as Adler's basic premise.

Style of life

This concept reflects the organization of the personality, including the meanings individuals assign to the world, others, and themselves; their fictional final goal; and the affective, cognitive, and behavioral strategies they use to reach that goal, whether normal or neurotic. [16] This style is also viewed in the context of the individual's approach to the three tasks of life: relationships, work, and love. [36]

Fictional final goal

Classical Adlerian psychology assumes a central personality dynamic that reflects growth and forward movement in life, influenced by Hans Vaihinger's concept of fiction. [16] It is future-oriented, striving toward an ideal goal of significance, superiority, success, or completion: what Adler himself called "an attempt at a planned final compensation and a (secret) life plan". [22]

A common feeling of inferiority, which one aims to compensate for, leads to creating a fictional final goal that subjectively promises total relief from that feeling, along with future security and success. The depth of the inferior feeling usually determines the height of the goal, which then becomes the "final cause" of behavior patterns.

Unity of the personality

This position describes the personality as integrated, moving in one psychological direction, without internal contradictions or conflicts. Gerald Corey (2012) wrote in Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy that personality can only be understood holistically/systemically. Adlerian psychology views the individual as a holistic entity influenced by familial, social, and cultural contexts. [37] In a 2012 interview with the Journal of Individual Psychology, Jane Griffith said, "The holistic character of thought is in Adler's choice of the term Individual Psychology...It's one word in German, Individualpsychologie: indivisible...Adler also thought that not only is the individual not to be divided up, but he's not to be seen as apart from his context either. He said that you can't examine an isolated individual." [38]

Private logic (vs. common sense)

Private logic is the reasoning an individual invents to stimulate and justify their style of life. In contrast, common sense represents society's consensual reasoning that recognizes the emphasis on mutual benefit. In 1995, Harold Mosak described Five Basic Mistakes in private logic: [39]

Safeguarding tendencies

Safeguarding tendencies are cognitive and behavioral strategies used to avoid or manage perceived failure. They can manifest as symptoms—such as anxiety, phobias, or depression—which can be used as excuses for avoiding life's tasks and transferring responsibility to others. They can also take the form of aggression or withdrawal. Aggressive safeguarding strategies include deprecation, accusations, or self-accusations and guilt, which are used to elevate fragile self-esteem and protect an overblown, idealized self-image. Withdrawal involves physical, mental, and emotional distancing from perceived threats.

Psychology of use (vs. possession)

This perspective suggests individuals use their thinking, feelings, and actions (even symptoms) to achieve a social end. They do not merely inherit or possess certain qualities, traits, or attitudes, but adopt only those characteristics that serve their goal and reject those that do not fit their intentions. This emphasizes personal responsibility for one's character.

Classical Adlerian psychotherapy

Classical Adlerian psychotherapy may involve individual psychotherapy, couple's therapy, or family therapy, either brief or a longer course, but all approaches follow parallel paths rooted in the individual psychology of Adler. [40]

Adler's therapy involved identifying an individual's private life plan, explaining its self-defeating, useless, and predictable aspects, and encouraging a shift of interest toward social and communal goals. [41] Specific techniques used included paradoxes, humorous or historical examples, analysis of the self-protective role of symptoms, and reduction of transference by encouraging self-responsibility. [16] Adler also favored "prescribing the symptom", a form of anti-suggestion aimed at making the client's self-defeating behavior less appealing. [42]

Based on a growth model of the mind, Adler's approach has a goal of fostering social interest [43] and reducing repetitive lifestyles, based on archaic private logic. [44] With its emphasis on reasoning with the patient, [45] classical Adlerian therapy shares similarities with cognitive behavioral therapy.

A core principle of Adlerian psychotherapy is encouragement, which is based on empathy and belief in the patient's potential. [46] By making the patient aware of their secret life plan, the therapist can offer an alternative outlook better suited to broader social interests. [47]

Encouragement is a feature of the Adlerian approach that aligns with principles used in child development and education, therapeutic education being one of Adler's central concerns. [48]

Goals/Overview

Adlerian psychotherapy involves a tailored therapeutic approach, created by the therapist in a six-phase process. The overall goal is to establish a relationship between the client and the community to challenge unhealthy thoughts and replace self-defeating behaviors with those that promote a more positive and healthy lifestyle. [49] The stages of this classical psychotherapy are:

The Socratic method guides clients to clarify feelings and meanings, gain insight into intentions and consequences, and consider alternative options. Guided imagery helps bring awareness, change, and growth. Role-playing encourages new behaviors and allows clients to practice managing conflict and other challenges. [50]

Uses

Individual

The basic structure of individual therapy in classical Adlerian psychotherapy is broken down into 5 phases; plus a post-therapy follow-up, with each phase further broken down into multiple stages (13 total). Each stage has different goals for the client and therapist to accomplish, which is the therapy's intended design.

Teacher-education programs

Teacher-education programs are designed to increase child cooperation in classrooms. Teachers, parents, and school administrators attend these programs to learn techniques that improve their teaching effectiveness and their ability to handle children. These programs are taught similarly to marital programs.

Couple-enrichment programs

Similar to group couple counseling, couple-enrichment programs are conducted by trained professionals for groups of couples (typically about 10) to improve their relationships. Various teaching formats are used, including tools such as role-playing, videos, and psycho-social exercises. Sessions typically last about an hour.

Parent and family education programs

These programs are comparable to classes taught by family life educators, focusing on building better family relationships. [51]

Contemporary techniques

There are two main contemporary schools of Adlerian psychotherapy: those following Rudolf Dreikurs and those identifying as classical Adlerian. Many organizations write about and practice this psychology (The North American Society of Adlerian Psychology (NASAP), The Journal of Individual Psychology, the International Associate of Individual Psychology (IAIP), the International Congress of Adlerian Summer Schools and Institutes (ICASSI), and other organizations). Many universities worldwide offer postgraduate training in Adlerian psychology. This psychotherapy continues to be practiced and integrated into some areas of mainstream psychotherapy. [51]

A debate exists among contemporary Adlerian regarding the relative roles of belonging and superiority in determining character, with the school associated with Rudolf Dreikurs emphasizing the former, as opposed to classical Adlerian theorists. [52]

Dreikurs

Rudolf Dreikurs was a psychiatrist who studied under Adler in Vienna. Although Adler's work was popular in America, it declined after his death. Dreikurs revived Adlerian psychotherapy. [51]

Building on Adler's writings, Dreikurs conceptualized a four-stage approach to Adlerian psychotherapy:

  1. Establishing the therapeutic relationship.
  2. Assessing the client's lifestyle.
  3. Promoting the client's insight into their fictive goal.
  4. Encouraging clients to broaden their interests from the defensive function of a private logic, into a broader sense of community. [53]

Classical Adlerian psychologists

Adlerian pertains to the theory and practice of Alfred Adler (1870–1937), the founder of individual psychology. [54] Adlerian clients are encouraged to overcome insecurities, develop deeper connections, and redirect their striving for significance into more socially beneficial directions. Through respectful Socratic dialogue, [55] they are challenged to correct mistaken assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, and feelings about themselves and the world.

Continued encouragement is used to support clients in pursuing goals. Developing confidence and a sense of accomplishment may enhance the client’s willingness and ability to cooperate.

The primary objective of classical Adlerian psychotherapy is to replace exaggerated self-protection (safeguarding), self-enhancement, and self-indulgence with greater self-knowledge and genuine, courageous social feelings. [56] Notable Adlerian psychologists include:

History

Alfred Adler Alfred Adler1.png
Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler was greatly influenced by early socialism and Freud, as reflected in his early work and theories. He emphasized that individuals could change their lives. Adler and Freud respected each other, but Adler did not fully agree with Freud's theories. While Adler believed childhood experiences influence current problems, he did not believe they were the only factor, also emphasizing free will and an inborn drive as contributors. He did not believe individuals are victims of their past experiences. [51]

Biography

"Alfred Adler was born to a Jewish family on February 7, 1870, on the outskirts of Vienna. He was the second oldest child of six. He was often sick as a child, and once he became knowledgeable of death, he decided to become a physician someday. Adler's childhood sickness made him appear weak and inferior. A teacher recommended that he quit school to become an apprentice shoemaker. Adler's family objected to this, and Alfred eventually went to medical school and graduated from the University of Vienna with his medical degree specializing in ophthalmology. Alfred met his future wife, Raissa Timofeyewna Epstein, in a series of political meetings that revolved around the current rising socialist movement. The two were married in 1897. Adler started a private practice, which slowly switched to internal medicine. It was here that he observed that many of his patients had diseases that could be traced to social situation origins. Adler's first publication discussed how the social conditions of where people worked influenced diseases and disease processes." [51]

Career

Early in his career, Adler focused on public health, medical and psychological prevention, and social welfare. Later, he shifted towards children at risk, women's rights, adult education, teacher training, community mental health, family counseling and education, and briefly psychotherapy. Adler started The Group for Free Psychoanalytic Research, later renamed Individual Psychology, with individual meaning "indivisible." With this, he founded his own journal, the Journal for Individual Psychology, which is considered the start of classical Adlerian psychotherapy. Although Adler focused on psychoanalysis when starting his group and worked as a psychiatrist, this focus was brief. After World War I, Adler shifted toward community and social orientation, becoming more of a philosopher, social psychologist, and educator. [51]

Components

Adler had many areas of focus, but some key components contributed to classical Adlerian psychotherapy (a.k.a. individual psychology). He believed children are born with an inborn force that enables them to make their own decisions and develop their own opinions, stating that individuals aren't just products of their situations but creators of them. A person's feelings, beliefs, and behaviors all work together to make each individual unique.

Another area of focus was on the concept of fiction, defined as conscious and non-conscious ideas that may not be aligned with reality but serve as a guide to cope with it. People create fictions to guide their feelings, thoughts, and actions, as ways of seeing themselves, others, and their environments.

Another concept is finality: the belief that there is only one organized force, a fictitious final goal. This goal is established in early childhood and remains present throughout life, influencing behavior mostly unconsciously. Questions are asked more along the lines of "what for" or "where to" instead of "why" or "where from," focusing on the goal and purpose of a behavior rather than finding its cause. The final cause of the behavior is the focus, hence the term fictitious final goal.

Social interest is another key area, reflecting the belief that individuals are social beings. The way an individual interacts with others is greatly important in terms of their psychological health. Social interest means feeling part of a family, group, or community, and an important related concept is the ability to feel empathy, which connects individuals. [51]

Works

Papers contained in Individual Psychology (1929 English revised edition)

Criticism

Karl Popper argued that Adler's individual psychology, like psychoanalysis, is a pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsifiable. [57]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Adler, Alfred (1924). The Practice And Theory Of Individual Psychology (1 ed.). London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. ISBN   9781136330094. OCLC   862745962.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  2. ↑ (Fall, Holden, & Marquis, 2002)
  3. ↑ Adler, Alfred (2011) [1925]. The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology. Martino Fine Books. ISBN   978-1614271437 . Retrieved February 6, 2025.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Adler, Alfred; Radin, Paul (1955). "The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology". Internet Archive . pp. 1, 16 and 22. Retrieved February 6, 2025.
  5. ↑ Dimond, Richard E.; Munz, David C. (December 1967). "Ordinal Position of Birth and Self-Disclosure in High School Students" . Psychological Reports. 21 (3): 829–833. doi:10.2466/pr0.1967.21.3.829. ISSN   0033-2941.
  6. ↑ (Dinkmeyer, Pew, & Dinkmeyer, 1979)
  7. ↑ Eric Berne, A Layman's Guide to Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis (1976) p. 277-8
  8. ↑ (Hoffman, 1994)
  9. ↑ (Mosak & DiPietro, 2006)
  10. ↑ (Oberst & Stewart, 2003)
  11. 1 2 3 Chao, Ruth Chu-Lien (2015). Counseling Psychology: An Integrated Positive Psychological Approach. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. p. 81. ISBN   978-1-118-46812-8.
  12. 1 2 Rathus, Spencer A. (2012). Psychology: Concepts and Connections, Tenth Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. p. 429. ISBN   978-1-111-34485-6.
  13. ↑ Tudor, Keith (2014). Adlerian Psychotherapy: An Advanced Approach to Individual Psychology. Oxon: Routledge. ISBN   978-1-317-82234-9.
  14. ↑ Adler, Understanding p. 40
  15. ↑ Adler, Understanding p. 70-1
  16. 1 2 3 4 Lake, p. 6
  17. ↑ "Individual Psychology Theory of Adler – Fromemuseum.org" . Retrieved 2021-11-20.
  18. ↑ Brian Lake, 'Adler, Alfred', in Gregory ed., p. 5
  19. ↑ 'Inferiority Complex', in Richard Gregory ed., The Oxford Companion to the Mind (1987) p. 368
  20. ↑ "Inferiority Complex". American Psychological Association. Retrieved February 6, 2025.
  21. ↑ A. Adler et al, Superiority and Social Interest: A Collection of Later Writings (1964) p. 38
  22. 1 2 Adler, quoted in Eric Berne, What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (1974) p. 58
  23. ↑ Adler, Understanding p. 188-9
  24. ↑ Ellenberger, p. 608
  25. ↑ J. & E. Sommers-Flanagan, Counselling and Psychotherapy Theories in Context and Practice (2012) p. 82
  26. ↑ Alfred Adler, Understanding Human Nature (1992) p. 141
  27. ↑ Henri F. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (1970) p. 609
  28. ↑ 'Adlerian psychology' Archived 2012-06-02 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ↑ "Adlerian Therapy: Key Concepts & Techniques". 2024-01-24. Retrieved 2025-03-21.
  30. 1 2 'Classical Adlerian Individual Psychology: Alfred Adler's Original Approach'
  31. ↑ Henri F. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious (1970) p. 644
  32. ↑ Frew/Spiegler, p. 93-4
  33. ↑ U. E. Oberst/A. E. Stuart, Adlerian Psychotherapy (2003) p. 130-1
  34. ↑ Green, Rosalyn (2012). Theory and Practice of Adlerian Psychology. United States of America: University Readers Inc. p. 44. ISBN   978-1-60927-627-0.
  35. ↑ Compare e.g. Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (1964) p. 400
  36. ↑ Carlson, Jon (2017). Adlerian psychotherapy. Matt Englar-Carlson. Washington, DC. ISBN   978-1-4338-2659-7. OCLC   957264678.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  37. ↑ Corey, Gerald (2012). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. Cengage. p. 105. ISBN   978-0840028549.
  38. ↑ Rasmussen, P. R.; Watkins, K. L. (2012). "Advice from the Masters II: A Conversation with Robert L. Powers and Jane Griffith". Journal of Individual Psychology. 68 (2): 112–135.
  39. ↑ Corey, Gerald (2012). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. Cengage Learning. p. 105. ISBN   978-0840028549.
  40. ↑ Stein, H.T. and Edwards, M.E., 2003. Classical Adlerian Psychotherapy. Hersen, M., Sledge, WH. The Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy, 1, p.4.
  41. ↑ Brian Lake, 'Alfred Adler' in Richard Gregory ed., The Oxford Companion to the Mind (1987) p. 6
  42. ↑ Gerald Corey, Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy (1991) p. 155
  43. ↑ U. E. Oberst/A. E. Stuart, Adlerian Psychotherapy (2003) p. 37 and p. 47
  44. ↑ Alfred Adler, Understanding Human Nature (1992) p. 231
  45. ↑ Eric Berne, A Layman's Guide to Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis (1976) p. 278
  46. ↑ J. Frew/M. D. D. Spiegler, Contemporary Psychotherapies for a Diverse World (2012) p. 116
  47. ↑ Ellenberger, p. 620
  48. ↑ Ellenberger, p. 621-2
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy, San Diego, 2002.
  50. 1 2 Stages of Classical Adlerian Psychology, additional text.
  51. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Primer of Adlerian Psychology: The Analytic – Behavioral – Cognitive Psychology of Alfred Adler, Brunner-Routledge, 1999.
  52. ↑ Paul R. Rasmussen, The Quest to Feel Good (2010) p. 44
  53. ↑ U. E. Oberst/A. E. Stuart, Adlerian Psychotherapy (2003) p. 49
  54. ↑ Brian Lake, 'Adler, Alfred', in Richard Gregory ed., The Oxford Companion to the Mind (1987) p. 5-7
  55. ↑ Henry T. Stein, 'Stages of Classical Adlerian Psychotherapy'
  56. ↑ Adler, p. 139-42
  57. ↑ Popper KR, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations", reprinted in Grim P (1990) Philosophy of Science and the Occult, Albany, 104–110. See also Conjectures and Refutations .

References

Bibliography

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.