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Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political,economic,personal,and social equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that societies prioritize the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational,professional,and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.
Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts,while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other social divisions such as in race,class,and sexual orientation. The ideology and movement emerged in the 1960s.
Sex-positive feminism,also known as pro-sex feminism,sex-radical feminism,or sexually liberal feminism,is a feminist movement centering on the idea that sexual freedom is an essential component of women's freedom. They oppose legal or social efforts to control sexual activities between consenting adults,whether they are initiated by the government,other feminists,opponents of feminism,or any other institution. They embrace sexual minority groups,endorsing the value of coalition-building with marginalized groups. Sex-positive feminism is connected with the sex-positive movement. Sex-positive feminism brings together anti-censorship activists,LGBT activists,feminist scholars,producers of pornography and erotica,among others. Sex-positive feminists believe that prostitution can be a positive experience if workers are treated with respect,and agree that sex work should not be criminalized.
Catharine Alice MacKinnon is an American feminist legal scholar,activist,and author. She is the Elizabeth A. Long Professor of Law at the University of Michigan Law School,where she has been tenured since 1990,and the James Barr Ames Visiting Professor of Law at Harvard Law School. From 2008 to 2012,she was the special gender adviser to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court.
Feminist legal theory,also known as feminist jurisprudence,is based on the belief that the law has been fundamental in women's historical subordination. Feminist jurisprudence the philosophy of law is based on the political,economic,and social inequality of the sexes and feminist legal theory is the encompassment of law and theory connected.The project of feminist legal theory is twofold. First,feminist jurisprudence seeks to explain ways in which the law played a role in women's former subordinate status. Feminist legal theory was directly created to recognize and combat the legal system built primarily by the and for male intentions,often forgetting important components and experiences women and marginalized communities face. The law perpetuates a male valued system at the expense of female values. Through making sure all people have access to participate in legal systems as professionals to combating cases in constitutional and discriminatory law,feminist legal theory is utilized for it all.
Feminist sociology is an interdisciplinary exploration of gender and power throughout society. Here,it uses conflict theory and theoretical perspectives to observe gender in its relation to power,both at the level of face-to-face interaction and reflexivity within social structures at large. Focuses include sexual orientation,race,economic status,and nationality.
Sexual ethics is a branch of philosophy that considers the ethics or morality or otherwise in sexual behavior. Sexual ethics seeks to understand,evaluate and critique interpersonal relationships and sexual activities from a social,cultural,and philosophical perspective. Some people consider aspects of human sexuality,such as gender identification and sexual orientation,as well as consent,sexual relations and procreation,as giving rise to issues of sexual ethics.
Sheila Jeffreys is a former professor of political science at the University of Melbourne,born in England. A lesbian feminist scholar,she analyses the history and politics of human sexuality.
Feminist sexology is an offshoot of traditional studies of sexology that focuses on the intersectionality of sex and gender in relation to the sexual lives of women. Sexology has a basis in psychoanalysis,specifically Freudian theory,which played a big role in early sexology. This reactionary field of feminist sexology seeks to be inclusive of experiences of sexuality and break down the problematic ideas that have been expressed by sexology in the past. Feminist sexology shares many principles with the overarching field of sexology;in particular,it does not try to prescribe a certain path or "normality" for women's sexuality,but only observe and note the different and varied ways in which women express their sexuality. It is a young field,but one that is growing rapidly.
Josephine Chuen-juei Ho is the chair of the English department of National Central University,Taiwan,and coordinator of its Center For the Study of Sexualities.
Sylvia Rosila Tamale is a Ugandan academic,and human rights activist in Uganda. She was the first woman dean in the law faculty at Makerere University,Uganda.
Feminism is aimed at defining,establishing,and defending a state of equal political,economic,cultural,and social rights for women. It has had a massive influence on American politics. Feminism in the United States is often divided chronologically into first-wave,second-wave,third-wave,and fourth-wave feminism.
Feminist views on pornography range from total condemnation of the medium as an inherent form of violence against women to an embracing of some forms as a medium of feminist expression. This debate reflects larger concerns surrounding feminist views on sexuality,and is closely related to those on prostitution,BDSM,and other issues. Pornography has been one of the most divisive issues in feminism,particularly in Anglophone (English-speaking) countries. This division was exemplified in the feminist sex wars of the 1980s,which pitted anti-pornography activists against pro-pornography ones.
Feminist views on BDSM vary widely from acceptance to rejection. BDSM refers to bondage and discipline,dominance and submission,and Sado-Masochism. In order to evaluate its perception,two polarizing frameworks are compared. Some feminists,such as Gayle Rubin and Patrick Califia,perceive BDSM as a valid form of expression of female sexuality,while other feminists,such as Andrea Dworkin and Susan Griffin,have stated that they regard BDSM as a form of woman-hating violence. Some lesbian feminists practice BDSM and regard it as part of their sexual identity.
Feminist views on sexuality widely vary. Many feminists,particularly radical feminists,are highly critical of what they see as sexual objectification and sexual exploitation in the media and society. Radical feminists are often opposed to the sex industry,including opposition to prostitution and pornography. Other feminists define themselves as sex-positive feminists and believe that a wide variety of expressions of female sexuality can be empowering to women when they are freely chosen. Some feminists support efforts to reform the sex industry to become less sexist,such as the feminist pornography movement.
Australia has a long-standing association with the protection and creation of women's rights. Australia was the second country in the world to give women the right to vote and the first to give women the right to be elected to a national parliament. The Australian state of South Australia,then a British colony,was the first parliament in the world to grant women full suffrage rights. Australia has since had multiple notable women serving in public office as well as other fields. Women in Australia with the notable exception of Indigenous women,were granted the right to vote and to be elected at federal elections in 1902.
Ratna Kapur is a law professor and former director of the Center for Feminist Legal Research in New Delhi,India [1995–2012].
Feminist interventions in the philosophy of law concern the examination and reformulation of traditional legal systems in order to better reflect the political,social,and economic concerns of women---which also includes various other minority and ethnic groups. Though it draws heavily from feminist legal theory,feminist interventions in the philosophy of law differs from the more common feminist jurisprudence as it also seeks to explain the justification that a government has in interfering with the lives of its citizenry. Accordingly,then,feminist interventions in legal philosophy specifically addresses the relationship and rationale between a judicial system's exercise of power and its effects on female citizens. While particular views vary greatly,most feminist interventions in the philosophy of law operate under a belief that many contemporary legal systems are predicated on patriarchal notions of masculinity that result in a system of deeply-rooted bias and inequality.
Carceral feminism is a critical term for types of feminism that advocate for enhancing and increasing prison sentences that deal with feminist and gender issues. The term criticises the belief that harsher and longer prison sentences will help work towards solving these issues. The phrase "carceral feminism" was coined by Elizabeth Bernstein,a feminist sociologist,in her 2007 article,"The Sexual Politics of the 'New Abolitionism'". Examining the contemporary anti-trafficking movement in the United States,Bernstein introduced the term to describe a type of feminist activism which casts all forms of sexual labor as sex trafficking. She sees this as a retrograde step,suggesting it erodes the rights of women in the sex industry,and takes the focus off other important feminist issues,and expands the neoliberal agenda.
Feminist perspectives on sex markets vary widely,depending on the type of feminism being applied. The sex market is defined as the system of supply and demand which is generated by the existence of sex work as a commodity. The sex market can further be segregated into the direct sex market,which mainly applies to prostitution,and the indirect sex market,which applies to sexual businesses which provide services such as lap dancing. The final component of the sex market lies in the production and selling of pornography. With the distinctions between feminist perspectives,there are many documented instances from feminist authors of both explicit and implied feminist standpoints that provide coverage on the sex market in regards to both "autonomous" and "non-autonomous" sex trades. The quotations are added since some feminist ideologies believe the commodification of women's bodies is never autonomous and therefore subversive or misleading by terminology.
References
- 1 2 3 Bazelon, Emily (2015). "The Return of the Sex Wars". New York Times. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
- ↑ "Gender Expert Halley To Join Law School Faculty". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
- ↑ "Janet Halley takes the Royall Chair". Harvard Law Today. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
- ↑ Halley, Janet; Brown, Wendy (editors) (2002-11-01). Left Legalism/Left Critique. Duke University Press. pp. 3–4. doi:10.1215/9780822383871. ISBN 9780822383871.
{{cite book}}:|first2=has generic name (help) - 1 2 3 Halley, Janet E. (2006). Split Decisions: How and Why to Take a Break from Feminism. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. pp. 29–33. ISBN 9780691136325.
- ↑ Halley, Janet (2015-02-18). "Trading the Megaphone for the Gavel in Title IX Enforcement". Harvard Law Review. Retrieved 2016-08-31.
- ↑ Halley, Janet E. (2006). Split Decisions: How and Why to Take a Break from Feminism. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. p. 289. ISBN 9780691136325.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Halley, Janet (2015-11-04). "The Move to Affirmative Consent". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
- ↑ Robin, Wiegman (2004). "Dear Ian". Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy. 11. Retrieved 2016-09-01.
- ↑ Halley, Ian (2004). "Queer Theory by Men". Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy. 11. Retrieved 2016-01-09.
- ↑ Halley, Janet E. (2006). Split Decisions: How and Why to Take a Break from Feminism. Princeton University Press. p. 15.
- ↑ Halley, Janet (2006). "From the International to the Local in Feminist Legal Responses to Rape, Prostitution/Sex Work and Sex Trafficking: Four Studies in Contemporary Governance Feminism" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Law & Gender. 29 (2).
- 1 2 3 Halley, Janet (2009). "Rape at Rome: Feminist Interventions in the Criminalization of Sex-Related Violence in Positive International Criminal Law" (PDF). Michigan Journal of International Law. 30 (1).
- ↑ Cohen, Amy J. (2008). "Negotiation, Meet New Governance: Interests, Skills, and Selves". Law and Social Inquiry. 33 (2): 501–562. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2008.00111.x. S2CID 145742048.
- ↑ "Dr. Hila Shamir | The Buchmann Faculty of Law". en-law.tau.ac.il. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
- 1 2 Halley, Janet (2008). "Rape in Berlin: Reconsidering the Criminalisation of Rape in the International Law of Armed Conflict. Chapter: A Reading A Woman in Berlin, Reading Rape". Melbourne Journal of International Law. 9 (1): 78.
- ↑ Halley, Janet (2014-10-28). "A Call to Reform The New Harvard University Sexual Harassment Policy and Procedures" (PDF). Harvard Law School. Retrieved 2016-08-31.
- ↑ "After Federal Feedback, Law School Implements New Title IX Standards | News | The Harvard Crimson". www.thecrimson.com. Retrieved 2016-08-31.
- 1 2 Williams, Joan (2010). Reshaping the Work-Family Debate. Harvard University Press. pp. 122–123.
- ↑ West, Robin (2011). Normative Jurisprudence. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–117. ISBN 978-0-521-73829-3.
- ↑ West, Robin (2011). Normative Jurisprudence. Cambridge University Press. pp. 146–153. ISBN 978-0-521-73829-3.
- ↑ Halley, Janet (2004). "Sexuality Harassment". Directions in Sexual Harassment Law. Yale University Press.
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