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The cerebral cortex, also known as the cerebral mantle, is the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain in humans and other mammals. The cerebral cortex mostly consists of the six-layered neocortex, with just 10% consisting of allocortex. It is separated into two cortices, by the longitudinal fissure that divides the cerebrum into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres are joined beneath the cortex by the corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex is the largest site of neural integration in the central nervous system. It plays a key role in attention, perception, awareness, thought, memory, language, and consciousness. The cerebral cortex is part of the brain responsible for cognition.
Santiago Ramón y Cajal was a Spanish neuroscientist, pathologist, and histologist specializing in neuroanatomy and the central nervous system. He and Camillo Golgi received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906. Ramón y Cajal was the first person of Spanish origin to win a scientific Nobel Prize. His original investigations of the microscopic structure of the brain made him a pioneer of modern neuroscience.
The Cajal Institute (IC) is a research center in neurobiology which belongs to the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC). The IC originates from the Laboratorio de Investigaciones Biológicas, founded in 1900 by order of King Alfonso XIII on the occasion of the Moscow Prize to Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934). Following Cajal's award of the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1906 and the 1907 creation of the Junta de Ampliación de Estudios, Cajal was appointed President of the Junta. A royal decree by king Alfonso XIII established the construction of a new building and the appointment of Cajal as its first director in 1920.
The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system. The brain consists of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum. It controls most of the activities of the body, processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the sense organs, and making decisions as to the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the skull bones of the head.
Pyramidal cells, or pyramidal neurons, are a type of multipolar neuron found in areas of the brain including the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and the amygdala. Pyramidal cells are the primary excitation units of the mammalian prefrontal cortex and the corticospinal tract. Pyramidal neurons are also one of two cell types where the characteristic sign, Negri bodies, are found in post-mortem rabies infection. Pyramidal neurons were first discovered and studied by Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Since then, studies on pyramidal neurons have focused on topics ranging from neuroplasticity to cognition.
A cortical column is a group of neurons forming a cylindrical structure through the cerebral cortex of the brain perpendicular to the cortical surface. The structure was first identified by Mountcastle in 1957. He later identified minicolumns as the basic units of the neocortex which were arranged into columns. Each contains the same types of neurons, connectivity, and firing properties. Columns are also called hypercolumn, macrocolumn, functional column or sometimes cortical module. Neurons within a minicolumn (microcolumn) encode similar features, whereas a hypercolumn "denotes a unit containing a full set of values for any given set of receptive field parameters". A cortical module is defined as either synonymous with a hypercolumn (Mountcastle) or as a tissue block of multiple overlapping hypercolumns.
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain plasticity, is the ability of neural networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganization. It is when the brain is rewired to function in some way that differs from how it previously functioned. These changes range from individual neuron pathways making new connections, to systematic adjustments like cortical remapping or neural oscillation. Other forms of neuroplasticity include homologous area adaptation, cross modal reassignment, map expansion, and compensatory masquerade. Examples of neuroplasticity include circuit and network changes that result from learning a new ability, information acquisition, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress.
The Blue Brain Project is a Swiss brain research initiative that aims to create a digital reconstruction of the mouse brain. The project was founded in May 2005 by the Brain and Mind Institute of École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland. Its mission is to use biologically-detailed digital reconstructions and simulations of the mammalian brain to identify the fundamental principles of brain structure and function.
Martinotti cells are small multipolar neurons with short branching dendrites. They are scattered throughout various layers of the cerebral cortex, sending their axons up to the cortical layer I where they form axonal arborization. The arbors transgress multiple columns in layer VI and make contacts with the distal tuft dendrites of pyramidal cells. Martinotti cells express somatostatin and sometimes calbindin, but not parvalbumin or vasoactive intestinal peptide. Furthermore, Martinotti cells in layer V have been shown to express the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α2 subunit (Chrna2).
Henry John Markram is a South African-born Israeli neuroscientist, professor at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland and director of the Blue Brain Project and founder of the Human Brain Project.
The Supercomputing and Visualization Center of Madrid (CeSViMa), also called Madrid Supercomputing and Visualization Center, depends on the computer science faculty of the Technical University of Madrid. This center houses Magerit, one of the most powerful supercomputers in Spain. This center is a member of the Spanish Supercomputing Network, the Spanish e-Science Network and the Madrid Laboratories and Infraestructures Network.
Brain simulation is the concept of creating a functioning computer model of a brain or part of a brain. Brain simulation projects intend to contribute to a complete understanding of the brain, and eventually also assist the process of treating and diagnosing brain diseases.
In neuroscience, functional specialization is a theory which suggests that different areas in the brain are specialized for different functions.
Vivien Alice Casagrande was a professor in the Department of Cell and Developmental Biology at the Vanderbilt University Medical Center.
The development of the cerebral cortex, known as corticogenesis is the process during which the cerebral cortex of the brain is formed as part of the development of the nervous system of mammals including its development in humans. The cortex is the outer layer of the brain and is composed of up to six layers. Neurons formed in the ventricular zone migrate to their final locations in one of the six layers of the cortex. The process occurs from embryonic day 10 to 17 in mice and between gestational weeks seven to 18 in humans.
Justo Gonzalo Rodríguez-Leal , Spanish neuroscientist, after obtaining his bachelor's degree in medicine, he specialized in Austria and Germany (1933–35) with a grant from the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas, and subsequently carried out extensive research on human brain functions based largely on brain injuries from the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). He characterized what he called the central syndrome of the cortex, which he interpreted based on physiological laws of nervous excitability and a model of brain dynamics where the cortex is conceived as a dynamic functional unit with specificity in gradation, providing a solution to the question of brain localization. He described and interpreted phenomena such as inverted perception and multisensory and motor facilitation, among others. By applying concepts of dynamic similarity, he formulated and proved potential allometric laws in the loss of functions and in the sensory organization. He belonged to the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) from 1942 until his retirement, and he was lecturer of 21 PhD courses (1945–1966) on brain physiopathology at the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Madrid. He received awards from the CSIC (1941), the Royal Academy of Medicine (1950) and the Spanish Society of Psychology (1958).
Cajal–Retzius cells are a heterogeneous population of morphologically and molecularly distinct reelin-producing cell types in the marginal zone/layer I of the developmental cerebral cortex and in the immature hippocampus of different species and at different times during embryogenesis and postnatal life.
Rafael Yuste is a Spanish-American neurobiologist and one of the initiators of the BRAIN Initiative announced in 2013. He is currently a professor at Columbia University.
David C. Van Essen is an American neuroscientist specializing in neurobiology and studies the structure, function, development, connectivity and evolution of the cerebral cortex of humans and nonhuman relatives. After over two decades of teaching at the Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, he currently serves as an Alumni Endowed Professor of Neuroscience and maintains an active laboratory. Van Essen has held numerous positions, including Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Neuroscience, Secretary of the Society for Neuroscience, and the President of the Society for Neuroscience from 2006 to 2007. Additionally, Van Essen has received numerous awards for his efforts in education and science, including the Krieg Cortical Discoverer Award from the Cajal Club in 2002, the Peter Raven Lifetime Achievement Award from St. Louis Academy of Science in 2007, and the Second Century Award in 2015 and the Distinguished Educator Award in 2017, both from Washington University School of Medicine.
The Ramón y Cajal Scholarship (RyC) is a Spanish post-doctoral scholarship, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, that allows outstanding early career researchers in foreign countries to establish themselves in Spanish research institutions. Together with the more junior Juan de la Cierva scholarship, it is the most prestigious nationally-funded research scholarship to follow a scientific career in Spain. In fact, it is considered the main talent attraction strategy for Spain to counteract its scientific brain drain.
References
- 1 2 "Microorganización de la Corteza Cerebral Normal y Alteraciones de los Circuitos". www.cajal.csic.es. Retrieved 2023-02-06.
- ↑ CSIC (2021-09-24). "JAVIER DE FELIPE OROQUIETA". Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-02-06.
- ↑ "Observatorio de I+D+i UPM". www.upm.es. Retrieved 2023-02-06.
- ↑ Conferencia. Cajal y los Procesos Mentales (in Spanish), retrieved 2023-02-06
- ↑ "Cajal Blue Brain Project". cajalbbp.es. Retrieved 2023-02-07.
- ↑ "Sobre lo bello, el arte y el cerebro, por Javier de Felipe". www.mcu.es. Retrieved 2023-02-06.
- ↑ "El director del Laboratorio Cajal de Circuitos Corticales del Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Javier de Felipe Oroquieta, en el Aula de la Ciencia y la Tecnología de la UA. Actualidad Universitaria". web.ua.es. Retrieved 2023-02-06.
- ↑ DeFelipe, Javier (2010). Cajal's butterflies of the soul : science and art. Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539270-8. OCLC 319064236.
- ↑ Felipe, Javier de (2014). El jardín de la neurología: sobre lo bello, el arte y el cerebro (1 ed.). Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. ISBN 978-84-340-2156-3. OCLC 904664418.
- ↑ DeFelipe, Javier (2017). Cajal's neuronal forest : science and art. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-19-084286-4. OCLC 1013591180.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ Felipe, Javier de (2022). De Laetoli a la luna : el insólito viaje del cerebro humano (Primera edición: noviembre de 2022 ed.). Barcelona. ISBN 978-84-9199-426-8. OCLC 1353195967.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ Azmitia, E C (1999-07-01). "The Cortical Discoverer Award: Javier De Felipe". Cerebral Cortex. 9 (5): 520. doi: 10.1093/cercor/9.5.519 . ISSN 1460-2199. PMID 10450898.
