Leanne M. Williams

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Leanne M Williams

Leanne M. Williams is a clinical translational neuroscientist who has created a technology to scan brain function to identify different types of depression, anxiety, and stress disorders. She is forging the new field of precision neuroscience and mental health in which these brain-based types of disorder are mapped to clinical profiles and matched to more individualized interventions. She is a Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences in the Stanford Medical Schoo l [1] and, by courtesy, a Professor of Psychology at Stanford University.[2]

Contents

Biography

Dr. Leanne M. Williams is a Professor in Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences in the Stanford Medical School and, by courtesy, a Professor of Psychology at Stanford University. She is the founding director of the Stanford Center for Precision Mental Health and Wellness [1] and leads as director the Precision Psychiatry and Translational Neuroscience Lab (PanLab) [2] . She holds a joint appointment as Director of the Precision Medicine Core at the Palo Alto VA Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC) [3] .

Prior to joining the Stanford community, Williams founded the Brain Dynamics Centre at Sydney Medical School [4] and served as its director from 2002-2012. At the University of Sydney, she was a Professor of Psychiatry and foundation chair of cognitive neuropsychiatry from 2005-2012 and Associate Professor of Psychology from 1999-2004. She launched her academic career at the University of New England as a senior lecturer in Psychology from 1997-1998. Her PhD was completed with a British Council Scholarship at Oxford University [7] and conferred by the University of New England, Australia, in 1996. She received her Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Queensland in 1987 and her Class I Honors degree in Psychology from the University of New England in 1990.

Williams believes neuroscience is personal and she is dedicated to forging the new field of precision neuroscience for psychiatry and mental health. Her discoveries bridge the chasm between clinical neuroscience discoveries and their translation into practice. Outcomes from her discoveries have been published in over 350 peer-reviewed scientific articles and disseminated in the first book on precision psychiatry, “Precision Psychiatry: Using Neuroscience Insights to Inform Personally Tailored, Measurement-based Care” (2021) [5] . She has mentored the future generation of leaders in the field, including 27 postdoctoral fellows and 39 graduate students, many of whom now have independent faculty careers, including as full Professor and Chair. The global impact of her work includes presentations at the World Economic Forum [6] and active US and global patents for her brain image taxonomy for depression and anxiety.

Research

Williams is a leader in human neuroimaging of emotional and cognitive functions and how distinct impairments in these functions contribute to specific subtypes of mood, anxiety and allied trauma and attention disorders. Over the course of her career, Williams has created the roadmap for using clinical neuroscience to inform more precise approaches in psychiatry and mental health. Her research spans healthy and clinical populations and uses multiple neuroimaging methods with mechanistic and prospective interventional designs.

She has created a technology to scan human neural circuits in a standardized way across studies, sites and clinical populations [7] [8] [9] . Williams uses this technology to understand the mechanisms of who gets better on different types of interventions and why. She has developed a taxonomy for biotypes of mood and anxiety disorders based on the different ways that underlying neural circuits of the brain can be disrupted and how these circuits map on to different symptoms and behaviors. Williams uses her biotype technology to understand who gets better on different types of interventions and why, so that ultimately, we can get each person to the treatment they need sooner. These precision intervention studies involve collaborators across her Center for Precision Mental Health and Wellness and other institutions. In collaborations with computational experts, connectome and machine learning models are used to further refine the personalized prediction of treatment outcomes [10] [11] . Her findings show that specific disruptions in circuits involved in reflective, emotional and cognitive functions identify which individuals with depression, anxiety and trauma are likely to respond to different types of pharmacological and behavioral interventions [12] [13] [14] . Resulting subtypes are neurobiological targets for more precise tailoring of interventions and testing of novel and exploratory therapeutics.  

She has prioritized her focus on mood and anxiety disorders since 2006 in recognition of how rapidly they have become the leading cause of global disability and because of the emergence of treatments grounded in neuroscience. She also continues a focus on trauma and attention disorders that often co-occur with mood and anxiety disorders in adolescents and adults. Prior to 2006 her focus was on specific subtypes of schizophrenia psychosis. Unifying her research across these disorders is evidence that they involve common or overlapping dysfunctions in neural circuits that support emotional and cognitive functions. She conceptualizes mental disorders as expressions of underlying brain circuit disruptions, shaped by experience and genetic variation. Her work is grounded in translational studies from basic neuroscience to human patients to clinic.  In addition to using advanced functional neuroimaging to identify circuits and biotypes. In addition to using neuroimaging, Williams combines data from multiple other approaches, including electroencephalogram, behavioral measures, genetics, wearables, clinical scales and interviews. She has developed uniquely standardized pipelines that integrate across these measurement domains and enable her to pool and share data across a large body of cumulative studies and across ages [15] . To accelerate translation into the clinic Williams has developed a patented, reproducible method for quantifying circuit dysfunction at the individual subject level. Williams’ contributions close the translational gap between deep circuit neuroscience and its impact on human patients. Her discoveries have formed the basis of three patents.

During her 11 years as director of the Sydney Brain Dynamics Centre she cultivated its prominence in precision biomarker trials for mood, attention and trauma disorders. During 2008-2012, was the academic principal investigator for the foundational trial known as the international Study for Predicting Optimized Treatment for Depression (“iSPOT-D”). iSPOT-D, launched in Sydney, spanned 17 sites across 5 countries and was a first-of-its-kind to use brain scans combined with clinical, EEG and genetic information to identify predictions of antidepressant outcomes. Throughout 2008-2012, Williams was also a co-principal investigator of a Translational Center of Research Excellence that has identified novel circuit predictors and response biomarkers for exposure therapy relevant to fear-related anxiety and trauma disorders.

Through her tenure as the founding director of the Stanford Center for Precision Mental Health and Wellness, Williams has fostered the center's world-renowned reputation, bringing in numerous grants of approximately $10 million from the National Institutes of Health in priority areas for the field. Williams and her collaborators led the one of the first Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) [16] studies of depression and anxiety (2012-2016) and a Connectomes Related to Human Disease project to characterize subtypes of mood disorder using advanced brain imaging sequences from the Human Connectome Project. In 2015, Williams was funded to co-lead the “ENGAGE” precision mechanistic trial to identify brain circuit predictors of response and recovery for an integrated behavioral therapy in people with depression and associated weight management problems, under NIH’s priority Science of Behavior Change initiative [17] . To advance knowledge around the benefits and risks of novel therapeutics Williams, with collaborators, leads projects investigating mechanisms of ketamine and MDMA focusing on circuit targets that translate back to animal models, funded through the National Institute of Drug Abuse.

Through her affiliated leadership of the Palo Alto MIRECC's Precision Medicine Core [3] , she leads a multi-site mechanistic trial characterizing cognitive circuit dysfunction modified by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in Veterans with depression who are resistant to standard antidepressants [18] , funded through the National Institute of Mental Health. This TMS study is responsive to the Hannon Act “Precision Medicine for Veterans Initiative” to develop and validate brain and mental health biomarkers among Veterans using brain function measurements, with specific consideration for depression, anxiety, PTSD and related conditions.

Mentoring

Leanne M. Williams formally mentored over 70 pre- and post-doctoral trainees, many of whom now have independent faculty careers. Her women mentees are equally represented among mentees who have successful independent faculty careers, including at full Professor and Chair. She is a faculty professor mentor on the national Research Career Development Institute for Psychiatry [19] , the post-doctoral T32 training programs for biobehavioral research and the T32 research training for child psychiatry and neurodevelopment at Stanford University, funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, and the MIRECC advanced psychology, advanced MD and national post-doctoral training fellowships within the Palo Alto MIRECC and VA. She is also a mentor for the T32 training program in basic neuroscience at Stanford University, funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Stanford PsyD Consortium for training in clinical psychological sciences [20] .

Honors

Leanne M. Williams has been awarded the 2022 George Thompson Award of the Society of Biological Psychiatry (SOBP) jointly with the SOBP Women’s Leadership Group, the 2016 Stanford Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Chairman’s Award for Advanced Contributions to Science, the 2012 Ernst Strüngmann Award titled “Schizophrenia evolution and synthesis”, the 2008 Presidential Award from the US Society for Psychosomatic Medicine, the 2005 Pfizer Foundation Senior Research Fellowship, the 2003 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Science, the 2001 Young Investigator Award from the International Schizophrenia Congress, the 2000 Senior Scientist Award at the 10th Biennial Winter Workshop on Schizophrenia and the 1998 Wellcome-Ramaciotti Research Award for advanced study from the London Institute of Psychiatry.

Selected Publications

Williams' most cited peer-reviewed articles are:

Related Research Articles

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Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and it includes subjectively unpleasant feelings of dread over anticipated events. It is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.

Schizophrenia Mental disorder characterized by psychosis

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdrawal, decreased emotional expression, and apathy. Symptoms typically come on gradually, begin in young adulthood, and in many cases never resolve. There is no objective diagnostic test; the diagnosis is used to describe observed behavior that may stem from numerous different causes. Besides observed behavior, doctors will also take a history that includes the person's reported experiences, and reports of others familiar with the person, when making a diagnosis. To diagnose someone with schizophrenia, doctors are supposed to confirm that symptoms and functional impairment are present for six months (DSM-5) or one month (ICD-11). Many people with schizophrenia have other mental disorders, especially substance use disorders, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, and obsessive–compulsive disorder.

Amygdala Each of two small structures deep within the temporal lobe of complex vertebrates

The amygdala is one of two almond-shaped clusters of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain's cerebrum in complex vertebrates, including humans. Shown to perform a primary role in the processing of memory, decision making, and emotional responses, the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system. The term "amygdala" was first introduced by Karl Friedrich Burdach in 1822.

Anhedonia is a diverse array of deficits in hedonic function, including reduced motivation or ability to experience pleasure. While earlier definitions emphasized the inability to experience pleasure, anhedonia is currently used by researchers to refer to reduced motivation, reduced anticipatory pleasure (wanting), reduced consummatory pleasure (liking), and deficits in reinforcement learning. In the DSM-5, anhedonia is a component of depressive disorders, substance-related disorders, psychotic disorders, and personality disorders, where it is defined by either a reduced ability to experience pleasure, or a diminished interest in engaging in pleasurable activities. While the ICD-10 does not explicitly mention anhedonia, the depressive symptom analogous to anhedonia as described in the DSM-5 is a loss of interest or pleasure.

Affective neuroscience Study of the neural mechanisms of emotion

Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of emotion. This interdisciplinary field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. The putative existence of 'basic emotions' and their defining attributes represents a long lasting and yet unsettled issue in the field.

Reduced affect display, sometimes referred to as emotional blunting or emotional numbing, is a condition of reduced emotional reactivity in an individual. It manifests as a failure to express feelings either verbally or nonverbally, especially when talking about issues that would normally be expected to engage the emotions. Expressive gestures are rare and there is little animation in facial expression or vocal inflection. Reduced affect can be symptomatic of autism, schizophrenia, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, depersonalization disorder, schizoid personality disorder or brain damage. It may also be a side effect of certain medications.

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Uncinate fasciculus

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References

  1. ↑ "Stanford Center for Precision Mental Health and Wellness".
  2. ↑ "Precision Psychiatry and Translational Neuroscience Lab (PanLab)".
  3. 1 2 "Sierra Pacific (VISN 21) MIRECC Research".
  4. ↑ "Brain Dynamics Centre at Sydney Medical School".
  5. ↑ Williams, Leanne M.; Hack, Laura M., eds. (2021). Precision Psychiatry: Using Neuroscience Insights to Inform Personally Tailored, Measurement-Based Care. American Psychiatric Association. ISBN   978-1-61537-158-7.
  6. ↑ Using big data to diagnose and treat clinical depression faster & more accurately | Leanne Williams , retrieved 23 June 2022
  7. 1 2 Goldstein-Piekarski, Andrea N.; Ball, Tali M.; Samara, Zoe; Staveland, Brooke R.; Keller, Arielle S.; Fleming, Scott L.; Grisanzio, Katherine A.; Holt-Gosselin, Bailey; Stetz, Patrick; Ma, Jun; Williams, Leanne M. (15 March 2022). "Mapping Neural Circuit Biotypes to Symptoms and Behavioral Dimensions of Depression and Anxiety". Biological Psychiatry. 91 (6): 561–571. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.06.024.
  8. ↑ Williams, Leanne M (21 September 2016). "Defining biotypes for depression and anxiety based on large-scale circuit dysfunction: a theoretical review of the evidence and future directions for clinical translation". Depression and Anxiety. 34 (1): 9–24. doi:10.1002/da.22556. ISSN   1091-4269. PMC   5702265 . PMID   27653321.
  9. 1 2 Williams, Leanne M (1 May 2016). "Precision psychiatry: a neural circuit taxonomy for depression and anxiety". The Lancet Psychiatry. 3 (5): 472–480. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00579-9. PMC   4922884 . PMID   27150382.
  10. ↑ Rajpurkar, Pranav; Yang, Jingbo; Dass, Nathan; Vale, Vinjai; Keller, Arielle S.; Irvin, Jeremy; Taylor, Zachary; Basu, Sanjay; Ng, Andrew; Williams, Leanne M. (22 June 2020). "Evaluation of a Machine Learning Model Based on Pretreatment Symptoms and Electroencephalographic Features to Predict Outcomes of Antidepressant Treatment in Adults With Depression: A Prespecified Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial". JAMA Network Open. 3 (6): e206653–e206653. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.6653. ISSN   2574-3805. PMC   309440 . PMID   32568399.
  11. 1 2 Korgaonkar, Mayuresh S.; Goldstein-Piekarski, Andrea N.; Fornito, Alexander; Williams, Leanne M. (6 November 2019). "Intrinsic connectomes are a predictive biomarker of remission in major depressive disorder". Molecular Psychiatry. 25 (7): 1537–1549. doi:10.1038/s41380-019-0574-2. ISSN   1359-4184. PMC   7303006 . PMID   31695168.
  12. ↑ Williams, Leanne M; Korgaonkar, Mayuresh S; Song, Yun C; Paton, Rebecca; Eagles, Sarah; Goldstein-Piekarski, Andrea; Grieve, Stuart M; Harris, Anthony W F; Usherwood, Tim; Etkin, Amit (31 March 2015). "Amygdala Reactivity to Emotional Faces in the Prediction of General and Medication-Specific Responses to Antidepressant Treatment in the Randomized iSPOT-D Trial". Neuropsychopharmacology. 40 (10): 2398–2408. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.89. ISSN   0893-133X. PMC   4538354 . PMID   25824424.
  13. 1 2 Tozzi, Leonardo; Goldstein-Piekarski, Andrea N.; Korgaonkar, Mayuresh S.; Williams, Leanne M. (1 March 2020). "Connectivity of the Cognitive Control Network During Response Inhibition as a Predictive and Response Biomarker in Major Depression: Evidence From a Randomized Clinical Trial". Biological Psychiatry. 87 (5): 462–472. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.08.005. PMC   8628639 . PMID   31601424.
  14. 1 2 Goldstein-Piekarski, Andrea N.; Korgaonkar, Mayuresh S.; Green, Erin; Suppes, Trisha; Schatzberg, Alan F.; Hastie, Trevor; Nemeroff, Charles B.; Williams, Leanne M. (18 October 2016). "Human amygdala engagement moderated by early life stress exposure is a biobehavioral target for predicting recovery on antidepressants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (42): 11955–11960. doi:10.1073/pnas.1606671113. ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   5081583 . PMID   27791054.
  15. ↑ Goldstein-Piekarski, Andrea N.; Ball, Tali M.; Samara, Zoe; Staveland, Brooke R.; Keller, Arielle S.; Fleming, Scott L.; Grisanzio, Katherine A.; Holt-Gosselin, Bailey; Stetz, Patrick; Ma, Jun; Williams, Leanne M. (15 March 2022). "Mapping Neural Circuit Biotypes to Symptoms and Behavioral Dimensions of Depression and Anxiety". Biological Psychiatry. 91 (6): 561–571. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.06.024.
  16. ↑ "Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)". National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  17. ↑ "Science of Behavior Change". commonfund.nih.gov. 26 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  18. ↑ "Mechanistic circuit markers of transcranial magnetic stimulation outcomes in pharmacoresistant depression".
  19. ↑ "Career Development Institute for Psychiatry | University of Pittsburgh | University of Pittsburgh". www.cdi.pitt.edu. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  20. ↑ "PGSP - Stanford PsyD Consortium | Palo Alto University". www.paloaltou.edu. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  21. ↑ Grisanzio, Katherine A.; Goldstein-Piekarski, Andrea N.; Wang, Michelle Yuyun; Rashed Ahmed, Abdullah P.; Samara, Zoe; Williams, Leanne M. (1 February 2018). "Transdiagnostic Symptom Clusters and Associations With Brain, Behavior, and Daily Function in Mood, Anxiety, and Trauma Disorders". JAMA Psychiatry. 75 (2): 201. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.3951. ISSN   2168-622X. PMC   5838569 . PMID   29197929.
  22. ↑ Williams, L. M.; Brown, K. J.; Palmer, D.; Liddell, B. J.; Kemp, A. H.; Olivieri, G.; Peduto, A.; Gordon, E. (14 June 2006). "The Mellow Years?: Neural Basis of Improving Emotional Stability over Age". Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (24): 6422–6430. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0022-06.2006. ISSN   0270-6474. PMC   6674038 . PMID   16775129.
  23. ↑ Williams, L. M. (6 September 2006). "Mode of Functional Connectivity in Amygdala Pathways Dissociates Level of Awareness for Signals of Fear". Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (36): 9264–9271. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1016-06.2006. ISSN   0270-6474. PMC   6674508 . PMID   16957082.
  24. ↑ Liddell, Belinda J.; Brown, Kerri J.; Kemp, Andrew H.; Barton, Matthew J.; Das, Pritha; Peduto, Anthony; Gordon, Evian; Williams, Leanne M. (1 January 2005). "A direct brainstem–amygdala–cortical 'alarm' system for subliminal signals of fear". NeuroImage. 24 (1): 235–243. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.08.016.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Author page on Google Scholar Accessed Jan. 23, 2019.
  26. ↑ Gatt, J M; Nemeroff, C B; Dobson-Stone, C; Paul, R H; Bryant, R A; Schofield, P R; Gordon, E; Kemp, A H; Williams, L M (20 January 2009). "Interactions between BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and early life stress predict brain and arousal pathways to syndromal depression and anxiety". Molecular Psychiatry. 14 (7): 681–695. doi:10.1038/mp.2008.143. ISSN   1359-4184.
  27. ↑ Lee, Kwang-Hyuk; Williams, Leanne M.; Breakspear, Michael; Gordon, Evian (1 January 2003). "Synchronous Gamma activity: a review and contribution to an integrative neuroscience model of schizophrenia". Brain Research Reviews. 41 (1): 57–78. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(02)00220-5. ISSN   0165-0173.
  28. ↑ Cohen, Ronald A.; Grieve, Stuart; Hoth, Karin F.; Paul, Robert H.; Sweet, Lawrence; Tate, David; Gunstad, John; Stroud, Laura; McCaffery, Jeanne; Hitsman, Brian; Niaura, Raymond (10 April 2006). "Early Life Stress and Morphometry of the Adult Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Caudate Nuclei". Biological Psychiatry. 59 (10): 975–982. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.12.016. ISSN   0006-3223.
  29. ↑ Rubinov, Mikail; Knock, Stuart A.; Stam, Cornelis J.; Micheloyannis, Sifis; Harris, Anthony W.F.; Williams, Leanne M.; Breakspear, Michael (19 January 2009). "Small-world properties of nonlinear brain activity in schizophrenia". Human Brain Mapping. 30 (2): 403–416. doi:10.1002/hbm.20517. PMC   6871165 . PMID   18072237.
  30. ↑ Chen, Ashley C.; Oathes, Desmond J.; Chang, Catie; Bradley, Travis; Zhou, Zheng-Wei; Williams, Leanne M.; Glover, Gary H.; Deisseroth, Karl; Etkin, Amit (3 December 2013). "Causal interactions between fronto-parietal central executive and default-mode networks in humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (49): 19944–19949. doi:10.1073/pnas.1311772110. ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   3856839 . PMID   24248372.
  31. ↑ Phillips, Mary L.; Williams, Lea; Senior, Carl; Bullmore, Edward T.; Brammer, Michael J.; Andrew, Christopher; Williams, Steven C. R.; David, Anthony S. (8 November 1999). "A differential neural response to threatening and non-threatening negative facial expressions in paranoid and non-paranoid schizophrenics". Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 92 (1): 11–31. doi:10.1016/S0925-4927(99)00031-1. ISSN   0925-4927.
  32. ↑ Williams, Leanne M.; Kemp, Andrew H.; Felmingham, Kim; Barton, Matthew; Olivieri, Gloria; Peduto, Anthony; Gordon, Evian; Bryant, Richard A. (15 January 2006). "Trauma modulates amygdala and medial prefrontal responses to consciously attended fear". NeuroImage. 29 (2): 347–357. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.03.047. ISSN   1053-8119.
  33. ↑ Grieve, S.M.; Williams, L.M.; Paul, R.H.; Clark, C.R.; Gordon, E. (1 February 2007). "Cognitive Aging, Executive Function, and Fractional Anisotropy: A Diffusion Tensor MR Imaging Study". AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology. 28 (2): 226–235. ISSN   0195-6108. PMC   7977408 . PMID   17296985.
  34. ↑ Horley, Kaye; Williams, Leanne M; Gonsalvez, Craig; Gordon, Evian (30 June 2004). "Face to face: visual scanpath evidence for abnormal processing of facial expressions in social phobia". Psychiatry Research. 127 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.02.016. ISSN   0165-1781.
  35. ↑ Williams, Leanne M.; Phillips, Mary L.; Brammer, Michael J.; Skerrett, David; Lagopoulos, Jim; Rennie, Chris; Bahramali, Homayoun; Olivieri, Gloria; David, Anthony S.; Peduto, Anthony; Gordon, Evian (1 November 2001). "Arousal Dissociates Amygdala and Hippocampal Fear Responses: Evidence from Simultaneous fMRI and Skin Conductance Recording". NeuroImage. 14 (5): 1070–1079. doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0904. ISSN   1053-8119.
  36. ↑ Williams, Leanne M.; Brown, Kerri J.; Palmer, Donna; Liddell, Belinda J.; Kemp, Andrew H.; Olivieri, Gloria; Peduto, Anthony; Gordon, Evian (14 June 2006). "The Mellow Years?: Neural Basis of Improving Emotional Stability over Age". Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (24): 6422–6430. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0022-06.2006. ISSN   0270-6474. PMC   6674038 . PMID   16775129.
  37. ↑ Phillips, Mary L.; Williams, Leanne M.; Heining, Maike; Herba, Catherine M.; Russell, Tamara; Andrew, Christopher; Bullmore, Ed T.; Brammer, Michael J.; Williams, Steven C. R.; Morgan, Michael; Young, Andrew W. (1 April 2004). "Differential neural responses to overt and covert presentations of facial expressions of fear and disgust". NeuroImage. 21 (4): 1484–1496. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.12.013. ISSN   1053-8119.
  38. ↑ Williams, Leanne M.; Das, Pritha; Harris, Anthony W.F.; Liddell, Belinda B.; Brammer, Michael J.; Olivieri, Gloria; Skerrett, David; Phillips, Mary L.; David, Anthony S.; Peduto, Anthony; Gordon, Evian (1 March 2004). "Dysregulation of Arousal and Amygdala-Prefrontal Systems in Paranoid Schizophrenia". American Journal of Psychiatry. 161 (3): 480–489. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.480. ISSN   0002-953X.
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