Body armor performance standards are lists generated by national authorities, of requirements for armor to perform reliably, clearly indicating what the armor may and may not defeat. Different countries have different standards, which may include threats that are not present in other countries.
The VPAM scale as of 2009 runs from 1 to 14, with 1-5 being soft armor, and 6-14 being hard armor.[1] Tested armor must withstand three hits, spaced 120mm (4.7 inches) apart, of the designated test threat with no more than 25mm (0.98 inches) of back-face deformation in order to pass. Of note is the inclusion of special regional threats such as Swiss P AP from RUAG and .357 DAG. According to VPAM's website, it is apparently used in France and Britain.
This armor would protect against three hits, fired from an arbitrary distance, of:
63.4±0.1 g (978±7.71 gr) 14.5×114mm B32 API bullets at a velocity of 911±10m/s (2988±33ft/s)
TR armor standard (Germany)
The Technische Richtlinie (TR) Ballistische Schutzwesten is a regulation guide in Germany for body armor. It is mainly issued for body armor used by the German police, but also for the German armed forces and civilian available body armor. Producers have to meet the criteria of the TR, if they want to participate in open competitive bidding made by German agencies. The TR specifies different Schutzklassen (SK), which translates to protection classes, which a body armor can have. It specifies five different classes ranging from L to 4 of ballistic protection (e.g. SK 4). It also gives specifications for additional Stichschutz (ST), protection against knives, using the same classes as the ballistic protection, but giving it the additional ST label (e.g. SK L ST). The ballistic tests to determine a class are now integrated into the VPAM guidelines, so that the tests differ just in minor details and only one test (SK 1) is significantly different as of 2008.[3]
This armor would protect against three hits, fired from 10±0.5 meters, of:
9.7±0.2 g (149±3.08 gr) 7.62×51mm P80 armor-piercing bullets at a velocity of 820±10m/s (2690±33ft/s)
The German TR are generally comparable to the American NIJ, but the German TR usually tests more threat scenarios, as there are no point-blank shots as well as no police special rounds. In contrast the NIJ tests for bigger calibers and higher man stopping power. And while the German TR tests smaller calibers and lighter bullets, it also tests more aggressive rounds, as the first test already uses steel FMJ bullets, while the NIJ uses normal FMJ rounds. In addition SK 4, the highest protection class, is specified to withstand three hits, while Level IV needs only to withstand one hit - although by a bigger caliber (7.62×63mm).[4]
HOSDB armor standard (United Kingdom)
The Home Office Scientific Development Branch is governing standards and testing protocols for police body armor.
Armor Level
Protection
HG1/A
This armor would protect against six (three for S-sized panel) hits, fired from 5 meters, of:
8.0±0.1 g (123±1.54 gr) 9×19mm Parabellum DM11 FMJ round-nose lead-core bullets at a velocity of 365±10m/s
10.2±0.1 g (158±1.54 gr) .357 Magnum R375M3 JSP bullets at a velocity of 390±10m/s
HG1
This armor would protect against six (three for S-sized panel) hits, fired from 5 meters, of:
8.0±0.1 g (123±1.54 gr) 9×19mm Parabellum DM11 FMJ round-nose lead-core bullets at a velocity of 365±10m/s
10.2±0.1 g (158±1.54 gr) .357 Magnum R375M3 JSP bullets at a velocity of 390±10m/s
HG2
This armor would protect against six (three for S-sized panel) hits, fired from 5 meters, of:
8.0±0.1 g (123±1.54 gr) 9×19mm Parabellum DM11 FMJ round-nose lead-core bullets at a velocity of 390±10m/s
10.2±0.1 g (158±1.54 gr) .357 Magnum R375M3 JSP bullets at a velocity of 430±10m/s
HG3
This armor would protect against six (three for S-sized panel) hits, fired from 10 meters, of:
4.0±0.1 g (62±1.54 gr) 5.56×45mm LE223T3 bullets at a velocity of 750±15 m/s (3116±33 ft/s)
RF1
This armor would protect against three hits, fired from 10 meters, of:
9.3±0.1 g (144±1.54 gr) 7.62×51mm L2A2 FMJ bullets at a velocity of 830±15 m/s (2723±33 ft/s)
RF2
This armor would protect against three hits, fired from 10 meters, of:
9.7±0.1 g (150±1.54 gr) 7.62×51mm L40A2 steel-core bullets at a velocity of 850±15 m/s (2723±33 ft/s)
SG3
This armor would protect against 1 hit, fired from 10 meters, of:
28.4±0.1 g (437±1.54 gr) 12 gauge rifled lead slug at a velocity of 435±25 m/s
BFD (Back Face Deformation) to be measured after each shot, maximum allowed BFD for HG1/A class is 44mm (1.7in) and 25mm (0.98in) for the rest.
GOST armor standard (Russia)
GOST R 50744-95 is the Russian Federation standard for body armor. Prior to the 2017 revision, the threat levels ran from 1 to 6. Noticeably, it included threats with the suffix A, which denote heightened ratings as opposed to lowered ratings in the NIJ standard.[5]
This armor would protect against three hits, fired from 5.10 meters, of:
10.4 g (160 gr) 7.62×54mmR 7-BZ-3 (B32 API) armor-piercing incendiary bullets at a velocity of 800–835m/s (2624–2739ft/s)
With the 2017 revision, the standards have changed significantly. Threat classes now range from BR1 to BR6. 'A'-suffixed classes have been eliminated, and their test threats have been either merged into the new categories, such as Classes 6 and 6A being moved into Class BR5, or removed entirely, as in the case of Class 2A. Additionally, several of the threat levels have been increased in difficulty with the introduction of new test threats; most notably is the introduction of Class BR6, which requires the tested armor to survive three hits of 12.7×108mm B32 API. In spite of the more difficult test threats, the 16mm (0.63in) back-face deformation limit remains unchanged.[6]
The updated standards from the 2017 revision are as follows:
This armor would protect against three hits, fired from 50±0.5 meters, of:
48.2 g (743.8 gr) 12.7×108mm 57-BZ-542 API (armor-piercing incendiary) bullets from an OSV-96 sniper rifle at a velocity of 830±20m/s (2723±65ft/s).
NIJ armor standard (United States)
NIJ Standard-0101.06 has specific performance standards for bullet resistant vests used by law enforcement. This rates vests on the following scale against penetration and also blunt trauma protection (deformation):[7] In the first half of 2018, NIJ is expected to introduce the new NIJ Standard-0101.07.[8] This new standard will completely replace the NIJ Standard-0101.06. The current system of using Roman numerals (II, IIIA, III, and IV) to indicate the level of threat will disappear and be replaced by a naming convention similar to the standard developed by UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch. HG is for soft armor and RF is for hard armor. Another important change is that the test-round velocity for conditioned[clarification needed] armor will be the same as that for new armor during testing. For example, for NIJ Standard-0101.06 Level IIIA the .44 Magnum round is currently shot at 408m/s (1,340ft/s) for conditioned armor and at 436m/s (1,430ft/s) for new armor. For the NIJ Standard-0101.07, the velocity for both conditioned and new armor will be the same.
9.6 g (148 gr) 7.62×51mm NATOM80 ball bullets at a velocity of 847m/s ± 9.1m/s (2780ft/s ± 30ft/s).
It also provides protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, II, and IIIA].
Type IV
Armor Piercing Rifle
Conditioned armor protects against
10.8 g (166 gr) .30-06 SpringfieldM2 armor-piercing (AP) bullets at a velocity of 878m/s ± 9.1m/s (2880ft/s ± 30ft/s).
It also provides at least single hit protection against the threats mentioned in [Types I, IIA, II, IIIA, and III].
NIJ standards are used for law enforcement armors. The US and NATO military armor designs are tested using a standard set of test methods under ARMY MIL-STD-662F and STANAG 2920 Ed2.[9] This approach defines the test process under the 662F/2920 standard. Each armor program can select a unique series of projectiles and velocities as required. The DOD and MOD armor programs-of-record (MTV for example) procure armor using these test standards. In addition, special requirements can be defined under this process for armors for flexible rifle protection, fragment protection for the extremities, etc. These military procurement requirements do not relate to NIJ, HOSDB or ISO law enforcement armor standards, test methods, garment size, projectiles or velocities.
In addition to the NIJ and HOSDB law enforcement armor standards, other important standards include German Police TR-Technische Richtlinie, Draft ISO prEN ISO 14876, and Underwriters Laboratories (UL Standard 752).
Textile armor is tested for both penetration resistance by bullets and for the impact energy transmitted to the wearer. The "backface signature", or transmitted impact energy, is measured by shooting armor mounted in front of a backing material, typically oil-based modeling clay. The clay is used at a controlled temperature and verified for impact flow before testing. After the armor is impacted with the test bullet, the vest is removed from the clay and the depth of the indentation in the clay is measured.[7]
The backface signature allowed by different test standards can be difficult to compare. Both the clay materials and the bullets used for the test are not common. In general the British, German and other European standards allow 20–25mm (0.79–0.98in) of backface signature, while the US-NIJ standards allow for 44mm (1.7in), which can potentially cause internal injury.[10] The allowable backface signature for body armor has been controversial from its introduction in the first NIJ test standard and the debate as to the relative importance of penetration-resistance vs. backface signature continues in the medical and testing communities.
In general a vest's textile material temporarily degrades when wet. Neutral water at room temp does not affect para-aramid or UHMWPE[11] but acidic, basic and some other solutions can permanently reduce para-aramid fiber tensile strength.[12] (As a result of this, the major test standards call for wet testing of textile armor.[13]) Mechanisms for this wet loss of performance are not known. Vests that will be tested after ISO type water immersion tend to have heat sealed enclosures and those that are tested under NIJ type water spray methods tend to have water resistant enclosures.
From 2003 to 2005, a large study of the environmental degradation of Zylon armor was undertaken by the US-NIJ. This concluded that water, long-term use, and temperature exposure significantly affect tensile strength and the ballistic performance of PBO or Zylon fiber. This NIJ study on vests returned from the field demonstrated that environmental effects on Zylon resulted in ballistic failures under standard test conditions.[14]
"Special Threats" are ratings of armour which provide protection against specific projectiles. For example, the NIJ guidelines do not have any specification for armor that can stop M855 armor piercing ammunition. As a result, some manufacturers have designated specific armours as "Level III+" (a designation not recognized by the NIJ) to specify armour which has up to level III protection and can protect against special threats like the M855, but does not provide level IV protection.[15][16]
US military armor standards
Although the US military requirements for body armor mirror the NIJ's on a surface level, the two are very different systems. The two systems share a 44mm (1.7in) limit on back-face deformation, but SAPI-series plates increase linearly in protection (with each plate tested against the preceding plate's threats), and require a soft armor backer in order to reach their stated level of protection.
US Army soft armor inserts adhere to standards specified under FQ/PD 07–05.[18] They are required to stop the following ballistic and fragmentation threats:
2-grain (0.13g) RCC (Right Circular Cylinder) at a velocity (V50) of 2,710-foot-per-second (830m/s) when dry and 2,575-foot-per-second (785m/s) when wet.
4-grain (0.26g) RCC at a velocity of 2,400-foot-per-second (730m/s) (V50) when dry and 2,300-foot-per-second (700m/s) (V50) when wet.
16-grain (1.0g) RCC at a velocity of 2,050-foot-per-second (620m/s) (V50) when dry and 1,920-foot-per-second (590m/s) (V50) when wet.
64-grain (4.1g) RCC at a velocity of 1,660-foot-per-second (510m/s) (V50) when dry and 1,610-foot-per-second (490m/s) (V50) when wet.
16-grain (1.0g) RCC at a velocity of 2,000-foot-per-second (610m/s) (V50) after hot and cold temperature exposure and accelerated aging.
16-grain (1.0g) RCC at a velocity of 1,900-foot-per-second (580m/s) (V50) after contamination with motor oil and JP-8.
17-grain (1.1g) Fragment Simulating Projectile (FSP) at a velocity of 1,850-foot-per-second (560m/s) (V50) when dry.
124-grain (8.0g)9×19mm Remington FMJ at a velocity of 1,400-foot-per-second (430m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0) and 1,525-foot-per-second (465m/s) (V50).
SAPI plates were the first ballistic plates to see mass issue in the US military. They have a black fabric cover with white text. These plates adhere to CO/PD 00-03[19] and are rated to stop the following threats:
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×51mm M80 ball bullets at a velocity of 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×54mmR LPS steel-core FMJ bullets at a velocity of 2,300-foot-per-second (700m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 62-grain (4.0g)5.56×45mm M855 bullets at a velocity of 3,250-foot-per-second (990m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
ISAPI (Improved SAPI) plates were designed as an upgrade to SAPI in the face of API threats in Iraq. They were superseded by ESAPI plates before they could be widely issued. These plates are rated to stop the following threats:[20]
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×51mm M80 ball bullets at a velocity of 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×54mmR LPS steel-core FMJ bullets at a velocity of 2,300-foot-per-second (700m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 62-grain (4.0g)5.56×45mm M855 bullets at a velocity of 3,250-foot-per-second (990m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 114-grain (7.4g)7.62×39mm 57-BZ-231 (BZ API) armor-piercing incendiary bullets at a velocity of 2,400-foot-per-second (730m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
ESAPI plates were developed in response to increased threats posed by 7.62x54mmR AP threats in Iraq and Afghanistan. They have a green fabric cover with white text. Original ESAPI plates, as well as those from Revisions B through D have the text "7.62mm APM2 Protection" on the back; Rev. E plates have the text "ESAPI - REV. E". The early-model plates are rated to stop the following threats:[21]
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×51mm M80 ball bullets at a velocity of 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×54mmR LPS steel-core FMJ bullets at a velocity of 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 62-grain (4.0g)5.56×45mm M855 bullets at a velocity of 3,250-foot-per-second (990m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
2 shots of 166-grain (10.8g).30-06 M2 AP armor-piercing bullets at a velocity of 2,850-foot-per-second (870m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
With the issuance of CO/PD 04-19H[22] on 4 March 2013, the ESAPI protection standards improved significantly. These plates are indicated by the text "ESAPI - REV. G" on the back and are rated to stop the following threats:
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×51mm M80 ball bullets at a velocity of 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0) and 2,850-foot-per-second (870m/s) (V50 - combined).
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×54mmR LPS steel-core FMJ bullets at a velocity of 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0) and 2,850-foot-per-second (870m/s) (V50 - combined).
3 shots of 62-grain (4.0g)5.56×45mm M855 bullets at a velocity of 3,250-foot-per-second (990m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0) and 3,350-foot-per-second (1,020m/s) (V50 - combined).
3 shots of 166-grain (10.8g).30-06 M2 AP armor-piercing bullets at a velocity of 2,850-foot-per-second (870m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 151-grain (9.8g)7.62×54mmR 7N1 "Sniper" steel-core bullets at a velocity of 2,700-foot-per-second (820m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 55-grain (3.6g)5.56×45mm M995 AP bullets at a velocity of 3,350-foot-per-second (1,020m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
With the issuance of CO/PD 04-19REV J[23] on 1 October 2018, the ESAPI protection standards were changed again. The protection requirements from 7.62×51mm NATO M80 ball and 5.56×45mm M855 were removed, and a high first-shot V50 requirement was added for the .30-06 M2 AP projectile. These plates are indicated by the text "ESAPI - REV. J" on the back and are rated to stop the following threats:
3 shots of 147-grain (9.5g)7.62×54mmR LPS steel-core FMJ bullets at a velocity of 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0) and 2,850-foot-per-second (870m/s) (V50 - combined).
3 shots of 166-grain (10.8g).30-06 M2 AP armor-piercing bullets at a velocity of 2,850-foot-per-second (870m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0) and 3,000-foot-per-second (910m/s) (V50 - first shot only).
3 shots of 151-grain (9.8g)7.62×54mmR 7N1 "Sniper" steel-core bullets at a velocity of 2,700-foot-per-second (820m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
3 shots of 55-grain (3.6g)5.56×45mm M995 AP bullets at a velocity of 3,350-foot-per-second (1,020m/s)+50-foot-per-second (15m/s) (V0).
XSAPI plates were developed in response to a perceived threat of AP projectiles in Iraq and Afghanistan. Over 120,000 inserts were procured;[24] however, the AP threats they were meant to stop never materialized, and the plates were put into storage. XSAPI plates have a tan fabric cover with black text. Early plates have the text "7.62 mm AP/WC Protection"[25] inscribed on the back; on newer variants, this text instead reads "XSAPI - REV. B" or "XSAPI - REV. C". These plates adhere to FQ/PD 07-03 and are rated to stop between three and six shots at velocities between 2,750-foot-per-second (840m/s) and 3,350-foot-per-second (1,020m/s) (V0) depending on threat type.[26][27]
GA141 armor standard (China)
The Chinese Ministry of Public Security has maintained GA141, a standard document for describing the ballistic resistance of police armor, since 1996. As of 2023[update], the latest revision is GA141-2010. The standard defines the following grades using domestic weapons:[28]:4
Armor Level
Protection
GA 1
7.62×17mm
Copper-jacketed bullet of 4.87g (0.172oz) mass at 320±10m/s, as shot from a type 64 or type 77 pistol.
Steel-core bullet, 9.6g (0.34oz) mass at 830±10m/s, as shot from a type 79 or type 85 sniper rifle.
Levels higher than 6 are marked "special".[28]:4 Levels 1 through 5 are to be tested with 6 shots. Level 6 is to be tested with 2 shots.[28]:8
Annex A describes the use of GA grades against other "common" threats. 9×18mm Makarov is assigned to GA 1, 9×19mm to GA 2, 9×19mm AP (steel) and 5.8×21mm DAP92 AP to GA 4, 5.8×42mm DBP87 to GA 6, and "type 53" 7.62×54mmR API to "special grade".[28]:11
Ballistic testing V50 and V0
Measuring the ballistic performance of armor is based on determining the kinetic energy of a bullet at impact (Ek= 1⁄2mv2). Because the energy of a bullet is a key factor in its penetrating capacity, velocity is used as the primary independent variable in ballistic testing. For most users the key measurement is the velocity at which no bullets will penetrate the armor. Measuring this zero penetration velocity (v0) must take into account variability in armor performance and test variability. Ballistic testing has a number of sources of variability: the armor, test backing materials, bullet, casing, powder, primer and the gun barrel, to name a few.
Variability reduces the predictive power of a determination of V0. If for example, the v0 of an armor design is measured to be 1,600ft/s (490m/s) with a 9mm FMJ bullet based on 30 shots, the test is only an estimate of the real v0 of this armor. The problem is variability. If the v0 is tested again with a second group of 30 shots on the same vest design, the result will not be identical.
Only a single low velocity penetrating shot is required to reduce the v0 value. The more shots made the lower the v0 will go. In terms of statistics, the zero penetration velocity is the tail end of the distribution curve. If the variability is known and the standard deviation can be calculated, one can rigorously set the V0 at a confidence interval. Test Standards now define how many shots must be used to estimate a v0 for the armor certification. This procedure defines a confidence interval of an estimate of v0. (See "NIJ and HOSDB test methods".)
v0 is difficult to measure, so a second concept has been developed in ballistic testing called the ballistic limit (v50). This is the velocity at which 50 percent of the shots go through and 50 percent are stopped by the armor. US military standard MIL-STD-662F V50 Ballistic Test define a commonly used procedure for this measurement. The goal is to get three shots that penetrate that are slower than a second faster group of three shots that are stopped by the armor. These three high stops and three low penetrations can then be used to calculate a v50 velocity.
In practice this measurement of v50 requires 1–2 vest panels and 10–20 shots. A very useful concept in armor testing is the offset velocity between the v0 and v50. If this offset has been measured for an armor design, then v50 data can be used to measure and estimate changes in v0. For vest manufacturing, field evaluation and life testing both v0 and v50 are used. However, as a result of the simplicity of making v50 measurements, this method is more important for control of armor after certification.
Military testing: fragment ballistics
After the Vietnam War, military planners developed a concept of "Casualty Reduction".[29] The large body of casualty data made clear that in a combat situation, fragments, not bullets, were the most important threat to soldiers. After WWII, vests were being developed and fragment testing was in its early stages.[30] Artillery shells, mortar shells, aerial bombs, grenades, and antipersonnel mines are all fragmentation devices. They all contain a steel casing that is designed to burst into small steel fragments or shrapnel, when their explosive core detonates. After considerable effort measuring fragment size distribution from various NATO and Soviet bloc munitions, a fragment test was developed. Fragment simulators were designed, and the most common shape is a right circular cylinder or RCC simulator. This shape has a length equal to its diameter. These RCC Fragment Simulation Projectiles (FSPs) are tested as a group. The test series most often includes 2 grain (0.13g), 4 grain (0.263g), 16 grain (1.0g), and 64 grain (4.2g) mass RCC FSP testing. The 2-4-16-64 series is based on the measured fragment size distributions.
German policemen in bulletproof vests on guard duty at a military hospital
The second part of "Casualty Reduction" strategy is a study of velocity distributions of fragments from munitions.[31] Warhead explosives have blast speeds of 20,000ft/s (6,100m/s) to 30,000ft/s (9,100m/s). As a result, they are capable of ejecting fragments at very high speeds of over 3,300ft/s (1,000m/s), implying very high energy (where the energy of a fragment is 1⁄2 mass × velocity2, neglecting rotational energy). The military engineering data showed that, like the fragment size, the fragment velocities had characteristic distributions. It is possible to segment the fragment output from a warhead into velocity groups. For example, 95% of all fragments from a bomb blast under 4 grains (0.26g) have a velocity of 3,000ft/s (910m/s) or less. This established a set of goals for military ballistic vest design.
The random nature of fragmentation required the military vest specification to trade off mass vs. ballistic-benefit. Hard vehicle armor is capable of stopping all fragments, but military personnel can only carry a limited amount of gear and equipment, so the weight of the vest is a limiting factor in vest fragment protection. The 2-4-16-64 grain series at limited velocity can be stopped by an all-textile vest of approximately 5.4kg/m2 (1.1lb/ft2). In contrast to the design of vest for deformable lead bullets, fragments do not change shape; they are steel and can not be deformed by textile materials. The 2-grain (0.13g) FSP (the smallest fragment projectile commonly used in testing) is about the size of a grain of rice; such small fast moving fragments can potentially slip through the vest, moving between yarns. As a result, fabrics optimized for fragment protection are tightly woven, although these fabrics are not as effective at stopping lead bullets.
Backing materials for testing
Ballistic
One of the critical requirements in soft ballistic testing is measurement of "back side signature" (i.e. energy delivered to tissue by a non-penetrating projectile) in a deformable backing material placed behind the targeted vest. The majority of military and law enforcement standards have settled on an oil/clay mixture for the backing material, known as Roma Plastilena.[32] Although harder and less deformable than human tissue, Roma represents a "worst case" backing material when plastic deformations in the oil/clay are low (less than 20mm (0.79in)).[33] (Armor placed over a harder surface is more easily penetrated.) The oil/clay mixture of "Roma" is roughly twice the density of human tissue and therefore does not match its specific gravity, however "Roma" is a plastic material that will not recover its shape elastically, which is important for accurately measuring potential trauma through back side signature.
The selection of test backing is significant because in flexible armor, the body tissue of a wearer plays an integral part in absorbing the high energy impact of ballistic and stab events. However the human torso has a very complex mechanical behavior. Away from the rib cage and spine, the soft tissue behavior is soft and compliant.[34] In the tissue over the sternum bone region, the compliance of the torso is significantly lower. This complexity requires very elaborate bio-morphic backing material systems for accurate ballistic and stab armor testing.[35] A number of materials have been used to simulate human tissue in addition to Roma. In all cases, these materials are placed behind the armor during test impacts and are designed to simulate various aspects of human tissue impact behavior.
One important factor in test backing for armor is its hardness. Armor is more easily penetrated in testing when backed by harder materials, and therefore harder materials, such as Roma clay, represent more conservative test methods.[36]
Very complex, requires ethical review for approval
Stab
Stab and spike armor standards have been developed using 3 different backing materials. The Draft EU norm calls out Roma clay, The California DOC called out 60% ballistic gelatin and the current standard for NIJ and HOSDB calls out a multi-part foam and rubber backing material.
Using Roma clay backing, only metallic stab solutions met the 109 joule Calif. DOC ice pick requirement
Using 10% Gelatin backing, all fabric stab solutions were able to meet the 109 joule Calif. DOC ice pick requirement.
Most recently the Draft ISO prEN ISO 14876 norm selected Roma as the backing for both ballistics and stab testing.
This history helps explain an important factor in Ballistics and Stab armor testing, backing stiffness affects armor penetration resistance. The energy dissipation of the armor-tissue system is Energy = Force × Displacement when testing on backings that are softer and more deformable the total impact energy is absorbed at lower force. When the force is reduced by a softer more compliant backing the armor is less likely to be penetrated. The use of harder Roma materials in the ISO draft norm makes this the most rigorous of the stab standards in use today.
Related Research Articles
A bulletproof vest, also known as a ballistic vest or a bullet-resistant vest, is an item of body armour that helps absorb the impact and reduce or stop penetration to the torso by firearm-fired projectiles and fragmentation from explosions. The vest may come in a soft form, as worn by many police officers, prison officers, security guards, and some private citizens, used to protect against stabbing attacks or light projectiles, or hard form, using metallic or para-aramid components. Soldiers and police tactical units wear hard armour, either in conjunction with soft armour or alone, to protect against rifle ammunition or fragmentation.
Bulletproof glass, ballistic glass, transparent armor, or bullet-resistant glass is a strong and optically transparent material that is particularly resistant to penetration by projectiles. Like any other material, it is not completely impenetrable. It is usually made from a combination of two or more types of glass, one hard and one soft. The softer layer makes the glass more elastic, so that it can flex instead of shatter. The index of refraction for all of the glasses used in the bulletproof layers must be almost the same to keep the glass transparent and allow a clear, undistorted view through the glass. Bulletproof glass varies in thickness from 3⁄4 to 3+1⁄2 inches.
Personnel Armor System for Ground Troops is a combat helmet and ballistic vest that was used by the United States military from the early 1980s until the mid-2000s, when the helmet and vest were succeeded by the Lightweight Helmet (LWH), Modular Integrated Communications Helmet (MICH), and Interceptor Body Armor (IBA) respectively.
A flak jacket or flak vest is a form of body armor. A flak jacket is designed to provide protection from case fragments ("frag") from high explosive weaponry, such as anti-aircraft artillery, grenade fragments, some types of pellets used in shotguns, and other lower-velocity projectiles. It is not designed to protect against bullets fired from most small arms such as rifles or handguns. However flak jackets are able to sustain certain gunshots, depending on the angle at which the shot was fired, the caliber of the bullet, the speed of the projectile and the range from which the shot was fired.
Body armor, personal armor, armored suit (armoured) or coat of armor, among others, is protective clothing designed to absorb or deflect physical attacks. Historically used to protect military personnel, today it is also used by various types of police, private security guards, or bodyguards, and occasionally ordinary citizens. Today there are two main types: regular non-plated body armor for moderate to substantial protection, and hard-plate reinforced body armor for maximum protection, such as used by combatants.
Stopping power is the ability of a weapon – typically a ranged weapon such as a firearm – to cause a target to be incapacitated or immobilized. Stopping power contrasts with lethality in that it pertains only to a weapon's ability to make the target cease action, regardless of whether or not death ultimately occurs. Which ammunition cartridges have the greatest stopping power is a much-debated topic.
Bulletproofing is the process of making an object capable of stopping a bullet or similar high velocity projectiles. The term bullet resistance is often preferred because few, if any, practical materials provide complete protection against all types of bullets, or multiple hits in the same location, or simply sufficient kinetic (movement) energy to overcome it.
The Small Arms Protective Insert (SAPI) is a ceramic ballistic plate used by the United States Armed Forces. It was first used in the Ranger Body Armor and Interceptor Body Armor, both are ballistic vests. It is now also used in the Improved Outer Tactical Vest as well as the Modular Tactical Vest, in addition to commercially available "plate carriers". The Kevlar Interceptor vest itself is designed to stop projectiles up to and including 9×19mm Parabellum submachine gun rounds, in addition to fragmentation. To protect against higher-velocity rifle rounds, SAPI plates are needed.
A ballistic plate, also known as an armour plate, is a protective armoured plate inserted into a carrier or bulletproof vest, that can be used stand-alone, or in conjunction with other armour. "Hard armour" usually denotes armour that uses ballistic plates.
A stab vest or stab proof vest is a reinforced piece of body armor, worn under or over other items of clothing, which is designed to resist knife attacks to the chest, back and sides. Stab vests are different from bulletproof vests, most of which offer protection against firearms but afford little against stabbing with sharp-tipped objects such as knives; most stab vests afford less protection against bullets, particularly those of high caliber, but are designed to prevent serious injury by prohibiting knife penetration beyond a few millimeters. Stab vests are also needle and slash proof.
Miguel Caballero S.A.S. is an international protective clothing company based in Bogotá, Colombia, operating branches in Mexico and Guatemala. The company specialises in fashionable armored clothing. Notable clients include King Felipe VI of Spain, Michael Bloomberg, former Colombian president Álvaro Uribe, former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, former U.S. President Barack Obama, and former Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto.
The Improved Outer Tactical Vest (IOTV) is an enhanced version of, and a replacement for, the older Outer Tactical Vest (OTV) component of the Interceptor Multi-Threat Body Armor System, as fielded by the United States Army beginning in the mid-2000s. The IOTV is compatible with the Deltoid and Axillary Protector System (DAPS) components, ESAPI, Enhanced Side Ballistic Inserts (ESBI), as well as the OTV's groin protector. It has a flame-resistant standalone shirt, the Army Combat Shirt (ACS), designed specifically for use with the IOTV.
A VIP armored car is a civilian vehicle with a reinforced structure that is designed to protect its occupants from assaults, bullets and blasts. Armored cars are typically manufactured with bulletproof glass and layers of armor plating, often with a variety of other defensive mechanisms and features to aid the individuals inside. Unlike military armored vehicles, a civilian armored car is designed to be inconspicuous and similar to its factory version.
Ceramic armor is armor used by armored vehicles and in personal armor to resist projectile penetration through its high hardness and compressive strength. In its most basic form, it consists of two primary components: A ceramic layer on the outer surface, called the "strike face," backed up by a ductile fiber reinforced plastic composite or metal layer. The role of the ceramic is to (1) fracture the projectile or deform the projectile nose upon impact, (2) erode and slow down the projectile remnant as it penetrates the shattered ceramic layer, and (3) distribute the impact load over a larger area, which can be absorbed by ductile polymer or metallic backings. Ceramics are often used where light weight is important, as they weigh less than metal alloys for a given degree of resistance. The most common materials are alumina, boron carbide, and, to a lesser extent, silicon carbide.
Dragon Skin is a type of ballistic vest first-produced by the now-defunct company Pinnacle Armor, and was subsequently manufactured by North American Development Group LLC. The vest manufacturer claimed that it could absorb a high number of bullets because of its unique design involving circular discs that overlapped, similar to scale armor.
EN 1063, or CEN 1063, is a security glazing standard created by the European Committee for Standardization for measuring the protective strength of bullet-resistant glass. It is commonly used in conjunction with EN 1522 to form a ballistic classification system by which armored vehicles and structures are tested and rated. A similar classification system primarily used in the United States is NIJ Standard 0108, the U.S. National Institute of Justice's Standard for Ballistic Resistant Protective Materials which includes glass and armor plate.
The use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is inherent in the theory of universal precaution, which requires specialized clothing or equipment for the protection of individuals from hazard. The term is defined by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), which is responsible for PPE regulation, as the "equipment that protects employees from serious injury or illness resulting from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other hazards." While there are common forms of PPEs such as gloves, eye shields, and respirators, the standard set in the OSHA definition indicates a wide coverage. This means that PPE involves a sizable range of equipment. There are several ways to classify them such as how gears could be physiological or environmental. The following list, however, sorts personal protective equipment according to function and body area.
Armor has been used in the military for a long period of time during the course of history, but is becoming more frequently seen in the public sector as time passes. There are many different forms and ways that armor is being commercially used throughout the world today. The most popular and well-known uses are body and vehicle armor. There are other commercial uses including aircraft armor and armored glass.
Ukrainian Armor is an arms dealer located in Kyiv, Ukraine.
6B45 is a standard ballistic vest of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. It is a part of Ratnik infantry combat system. It was adopted in 2014 as a replacement for the 6B23 vest. 6B45 vest has been developed by Techinkom company located in Saint Petersburg.
1 2 3 4 GA141-2010 警用防弹衣 Police ballistic resistance of body armor. Ministry of Public Security, P.R. China. Released October 17, 2010. In effect since December 1, 2010.
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