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The Reconstruction era was a period in United States history and Southern United States history that followed the American Civil War and was dominated by the legal, social, and political challenges of the abolition of slavery and the reintegration of the eleven former Confederate States of America into the United States. During this period, three amendments were added to the United States Constitution to grant citizenship and equal civil rights to the newly freed slaves. To circumvent these legal achievements, the former Confederate states imposed poll taxes and literacy tests and engaged in terrorism to intimidate and control black people and to discourage or prevent them from voting.
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, usually referred to as simply the Freedmen's Bureau, was a U.S. government agency of early post American Civil War Reconstruction, assisting freedmen in the South. It was established on March 3, 1865, and operated briefly as a federal agency after the War, from 1865 to November 1872, to direct provisions, clothing, and fuel for the immediate and temporary shelter and supply of destitute and suffering refugees and freedmen and their wives and children.
Forty acres and a mule refers to a key part of Special Field Orders, No. 15 , a wartime order proclaimed by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman on January 16, 1865, during the American Civil War, to allot land to some freed families, in plots of land no larger than 40 acres (16 ha). Sherman later ordered the army to lend mules for the agrarian reform effort. The field orders followed a series of conversations between Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and Radical Republican abolitionists Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens following disruptions to the institution of slavery provoked by the American Civil War. They provided for the confiscation of 400,000 acres (160,000 ha) of land along the Atlantic coast of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida and the dividing of it into parcels of not more than 40 acres (16 ha), on which were to be settled approximately 18,000 formerly enslaved families and other black people then living in the area.
The American Missionary Association (AMA) was a Protestant-based abolitionist group founded on September 3, 1846 in Albany, New York. The main purpose of the organization was abolition of slavery, education of African Americans, promotion of racial equality, and spreading Christian values. Its members and leaders were of both races; the Association was chiefly sponsored by the Congregationalist churches in New England. The main goals were to abolish slavery, provide education to African Americans, and promote racial equality for free Blacks. The AMA played a significant role in several key historical events and movements, including the Civil War, Reconstruction, and the Civil Rights Movement.
This is a selected bibliography of the main scholarly books and articles of Reconstruction, the period after the American Civil War, 1863–1877.
The civil rights movement (1865–1896) aimed to eliminate racial discrimination against African Americans, improve their educational and employment opportunities, and establish their electoral power, just after the abolition of slavery in the United States. The period from 1865 to 1895 saw a tremendous change in the fortunes of the Black community following the elimination of slavery in the South.
Charles Herbert Garvin, M.D. was a prominent African-American physician, writer, and educator in Cleveland, Ohio. He published 26 papers for the Journal of the National Medical Association on subjects ranging from tuberculosis in African-American populations, to the history of the black movement.
Joseph Newman Clinton was a politician and public official in Florida. An African American, he served in the Florida House of Representatives from Alachua County from 1881 to 1883, was a member of the city council in Gainesville from 1883 to 1885, and was a federal official in Pensacola and Tampa.
Jerrell Harris Shofner was an American historian and professor of history at the University of Central Florida (UCF). He wrote 16 books, many about Florida's history. He chaired UCF's history department and became a professor emeritus at the school.
Simeon Farr was an American politician who was elected as a state representative in 1868 in South Carolina during the Reconstruction era. He represented Union County, South Carolina. His photograph was used in a composite of Radical Republican officials from South Carolina. His name is spelled Simon Farr in an 1868 House document.
Hiram W. Duncan was a state senator in South Carolina during the Reconstruction era.
Henry W. Webb was a political leader in Reconstruction era South Carolina. He was a delegate to the South Carolina Constitutional Convention of 1868 and elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives the same year.
Herbert Jacob Seligmann was an American photographer, author and journalist known for his writings on civil rights issues, African Americans, bigotry, the U.S. occupation of Haiti, and the rise of Nazism in Europe. He also wrote about well known artists such as Georgia O'Keeffe and John Marin, and about writers like D. H. Lawrence, Albert R. Brand, and J. Hendrix McLane. His review of Lady Chatterley's Lover appeared in The New York Sun but was removed from later editions because of the obscenity ban. His book on Lawrence was the first by an American. Seligmann was the first publicity director for the NAACP between 1919 and 1932, and was interviewed about the group's history on WNYC's radio program for African American subject matter. He also worked for the Jewish Telegraph Agency.
John Carraway was a tailor, seaman, civil rights activist, and politician in the United States. In Alabama during the Reconstruction era, he served as a delegate to the 1867 Alabama Constitutional Convention. He also served on Mobile, Alabama's city council, and in the Alabama House of Representatives.
Andrew Jackson Junius was a carpenter, Baptist minister and state representative in Florida. He represented Jefferson County, Florida in the Florida House of Representatives in 1879.
Edward I. Alexander Sr. was a grocer, state legislator, city councilman, and postmaster in Florida. He represented Madison County, Florida in the Florida House of Representatives in 1877, 1879, and 1885. He sought to represent Madison County, Florida in the Florida House of Representatives in 1885.
James H. Alston was an American state legislator in Alabama. He served in the legislature in 1868 and from 1869 to 1879.
John E. Hussey was a grocer, boardinghouse owner, and state legislator in North Carolina. He was African-American and represented Craven County in the North Carolina House of Representatives from 1885 to 1889.
Richard Tucker was a carpenter, undertaker, and state legislator in North Carolina. He represented Craven County in the North Carolina House of Representatives in 1870 and in the North Carolina Senate in 1874 during the Reconstruction era. In 1874 he was one of four African Americans in the North Carolina Senate, all Republicans. The North Carolina House had 13 African Americans. Both bodies had strong Democratic Party majorities during the session.
William H. Moore was a state legislator in North Carolina. He served in the North Carolina House of Representatives during the Reconstruction era. He represented New Hanover County and served with other African Americans in the state legislature. His post office was in Wilmington, North Carolina. He served with Henry Brewington and Alfred Lloyd who also represented New Hanover in the 1874-1875 session. All three were African Americans.
References
- ↑ Work, Monroe N.; Staples, Thomas S.; Wallace, H. A.; Miller, Kelly; McKinlay, Whitefield; Lacy, Samuel E.; Smith, R. L.; McIlwaine, H. R. (1920). "Some Negro Members of Reconstruction Conventions and Legislatures and of Congress". The Journal of Negro History. 5 (1): 63–119. doi:10.2307/2713503. JSTOR 2713503. S2CID 149610698 – via JSTOR.
- ↑ Woodson, Carter Godwin; Logan, Rayford Whittingham (June 15, 1920). "The Journal of Negro History". Association for the Study of Negro Life and History – via Google Books.
- ↑ McCarthy, Kevin M. (July 24, 2019). African American Sites in Florida. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781561649518 – via Google Books.
- ↑ Brown, Canter (June 15, 1998). Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867-1924. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 9780817309152 – via Google Books.
- ↑ "Florida Black Grocers to the Florida Freedmen's Bureau Assistant Commissioner, April 5, 1866".
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-03-14. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
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