 |
The Māori people have had a strong and changing conservation ethic since their discovery and settlement of New Zealand. This is closely tied to their spiritual beliefs. [1]
| |
The Māori people have had a strong and changing conservation ethic since their discovery and settlement of New Zealand. This is closely tied to their spiritual beliefs. [1]
The Maori people first arrived in New Zealand in 950 AD. At the time, the biodiversity of New Zealand was much greater than the current state with the only mammals being three species of bats. As a result, a large and diverse bird population inhabited the forests of the land. [2] The largest known species of eagle, Haast's eagle, was native to the South Island. The impact of the Maori people had an adverse impact on the land. They hunted the flightless moa to extinction and cleared large swathes of forests, both to make way for settlements and to light fires in order to more easily hunt birds. Approximately half the native forests of New Zealand were destroyed within the first several hundred years. Without their primary foodsource (the moa) Haast's Eagle became extinct sometime in the 15th century. The Maori people also introduced the Polynesian Rat to New Zealand, which was devastating for the local bird populations. It is likely that the rats were brought as a food source by Maori settlers, but escaped and soon infested the island. This was especially harmful to the avian species of New Zealand which had evolved with no behavioural defence against the rats, as they had few, if any, natural predators. [3]
The Maori's daily life was dictated by the season. The planting season was in October and the harvest in February. The trapping of rats and birds was commonly practised by the forest tribes. Despite a relatively small population, the tribes claimed ownership of the entire island, periodically visiting land to substantiate claims. For the Maori, the land was not merely a resource, but a connection to ancestors. [4] The mana of the tribe was strongly associated with the lands of that tribe. From this came the Maori proverb "Man perishes, but the land remains." The Maori beliefs included Atua, invisible spirits connected to natural phenomena such as rainbows, trees, or stones. Sacred pools were known as wai tapu. It is the policy of the New Zealand Green Party to return wai tapu to the iwi, as some are currently under control of the Conservation Estate. [5] Large number of New Zealand pigeons flocking to feed on the fruit of the toromiro is an indicator of the mana of the forest. Because of this, this bird is generally only hunted for special occasions; the feathers are worn by Maori women of high social status.
Rāhui is a form of protection of natural resources that Maori implemented as a conservation measure as well as for other reasons.
A Cultural Health Index for waterways has been developed that links Western science and the cultural knowledge of the Māori about stream health. [6]
Maori belief dictates that Tane, the god of forest and birds, created the first man.
In Maori society, special status is granted to those known as the tangata whenua 'people of the land', or Maori who have resided in the local district for many generations. This is in contrast with the Maori that have no ancestral connection to the land, known variously as tangata haere mai 'people who have come in', rawaho 'outsiders' or tauiwi 'foreigners'. [4] Depending on the remoteness of the community, the percentage of tangate haere mai can vary from as few as 5% to in excess of 70%. Today, the term tangata whenua is often used to broadly differentiate between Māori and other groups.
Another important aspect of the Maori's relationship with nature was the concept of tapu, a dangerous energy that had to be properly nullified through ritual. Every natural resource had this, meaning, at least in theory, that exploitation of natural resources was limited by tapu. [4]
Maori land laws, which dictate equal partitioning of inheritances among children, have had the effect of preserving the land by making individual land blocks too small for economic use. Compounded with this, Maori of the older generation are culturally disinclined to sell their shares to developers, making cutting firewood or cultivating small gardens the primary economic activity on these lands. [4]
Maori blame European prohibition laws, many of which were implemented during the colonial era, for usurping the mana and contributing to the declining biodiversity of New Zealand. [4] In particular, Maori pointed to the continuing decline of the New Zealand Pigeon in spite of prohibitions on hunting, claiming Tane was removing them as they were no longer being used by the people. Regaining responsibility for the environment of New Zealand is seen not only as important from a conservation standpoint, but critical to truly be tangata whenua.
A team of researchers studied Maori traditional ecological knowledge of the tuatara, a reptile native to New Zealand through oral questioning of elders. This is particularly important because the tuatara is a living fossil, being the last living member of its taxonomic order. The tuatara had become extinct on the main island and exists only on 37 offshore islands. The elders' testimony correctly matched existing scientific knowledge regarding the physiology, diet, range, and behavior. The researchers concluded that, "In at least some cases, traditional ecological knowledge may persist as species decline and may serve as a valuable source of ecological information for conservation." In addition, they discovered seven more sites that the tuatara inhabited in recent times from this testimony. [7]
Culturally, the tuatara are generally considered a bad omen, though 20% of elders report tuatara being kept as pets. Tuatara, which have a primitive "third eye" and a long natural lifespan, are believed to have great knowledge and ability to see hidden things. Conversely, elders of the Ngai Wai Iwi report putting the reptiles under their shirts to stay cool. In the paper, Ramstad concludes, "Our current understanding of Maori attitudes toward tuatara needs revising to accommodate this heterogeneity in traditional ecological knowledge. Not all Maori fear tuatara, not all iwi subsisted historically on tuatara, and the cultural role of tuatara differs over time and among iwi." [7]
Today, approximately one third of New Zealand is under the mandate of the Department of Conservation. [1] Whanganui River was recognized as having the same legal status as a person by the government of New Zealand in 2017, ending the country's longest running litigation, which had begun 160 years ago. Prior to European settlement, the river was important for being easily navigable, which allowed widespread settlements through the Whanganui River valley. Prior to European colonization, this region was the most densely populated on the North Island. [8] Regarding this status, the lead negotiator for the Whanganui Tribe, Gerrard Albert, stated “The reason we have taken this approach is because we consider the river an ancestor and always have... We can trace our genealogy to the origins of the universe, and therefore rather than us being masters of the natural world, we are part of it." [9] Two legal guardians, one from the tribe and one from the New Zealand government, were appointed. A Maori MP, Adtian Rurawhe, stated that, "From a Whanganui viewpoint the wellbeing of the river is directly linked to the well-being of the people," referring to the mana of the tangata whenua.
Mount Taranki was granted similar legal status later in 2017, with eight tribes and the New Zealand government acting as legal guardians. The Minister for treaty negotiations, Andrew Little, said of the decision, "Today’s agreements are a major milestone in acknowledging the grievances and hurt from the past as the Taranaki iwi experienced some of the worst examples of Crown behaviour in the 19th century". [10] Albert hoped that these decisions would set a precedent for other Maori tribes to grant legal personhood to geographic locations. Part of what is now Tongariro National Park was given to The Crown by the Maori chief Te Heuheu Tukino IV to ensure its protection.
The Haka Kererū was a ceremonial dance that "served to make the connection between the environment and the people, and points to the fundamental platform of life and existence—Papatūānuku (Mother Earth)". [4] During its last recorded performance in 1972, "huahua (preserved kererū)" was served. The haka references the ecological devastation caused by European colonists. The exact words vary as individuals tailored them to their own dialects: [4]
| Maori | English |
|---|---|
| Ka horehore, ka horehore | They are barren, they are barren |
| Ka aroha te puke e tu iho nei | I am saddened by the hill that surround me |
| Ka horehore, ka horehore | They are barren, they are barren |
| He aha i hore ai? | Why is it so bare? |
| He kore kai pea | Perhaps because there is no food to be had |
| A me aha? | What shall we do? |
| Me kai pea ko nga raho o (name of a chief) | Let's consider eating the testicles of (name of chief) |
| Ka horehore, ka horehore | They are barren, they are barren |
| Ā neke neke hia | Alas, keep moving, keep moving |
| Ā, ç | Alas |
An alternative version also exists. [4]
| Maori | English |
|---|---|
| He kumara kai hamuhamu | Only the fernroots remain |
| Ko te ehu o te kupu nei na | The essential word implies |
| Kia hoki kau atu, ina te tinaki | That we return to till the soil |
| Taia mai, ka mate, taia mai | We haul it back, no good, we haul it back |
| Ka horehore, ka horehore | Absolutely barren, absolutely barren |
| Ka mate te puke tu iho nei | The hills beyond me are barren |
| Ka horehore, ka horehore | Absolutely barren, absolutely barren |
| He kotahi te kete i kimihia | We have only but one basket |
| Kei te kore, kore rawa aku iwi | There was virtually nothing for my people |
| Ki te mahi kai - | To prepare for a feast. |
Taonga or taoka is a Māori-language word that refers to a treasured possession in Māori culture. It lacks a direct translation into English, making its use in the Treaty of Waitangi significant. The current definition differs from the historical one, noted by Hongi Hika as "property procured by the spear" [one could understand this as war booty or defended property] and is now interpreted to mean a wide range of both tangible and intangible possessions, especially items of historical cultural significance.
Whakapapa, or genealogy, is a fundamental principle in Māori culture. Reciting one's whakapapa proclaims one's Māori identity, places oneself in a wider context, and links oneself to land and tribal groupings and their mana.
Tongariro National Park, located in the central North Island, is the oldest national park in New Zealand. It has been acknowledged by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site of mixed cultural and natural values.
The kererū, New Zealand pigeon or wood pigeon is a species of pigeon native to New Zealand. Johann Friedrich Gmelin described the bird in 1789 as a large, conspicuous pigeon up to 50 cm (20 in) in length and 550–850 g (19–30 oz) in weight, with a white breast and iridescent green–blue plumage. Two subspecies have been recognised; the second—the Norfolk pigeon of Norfolk Island—became extinct in the early 20th century. Kererū pairs are monogamous, breeding over successive seasons and remaining together when not breeding. They construct nests with twigs in trees, with a single egg clutch.
The Whanganui National Park is a national park located in the North Island of New Zealand. Established in 1986, it covers an area of 742 km2 bordering the Whanganui River. It incorporates areas of Crown land, former state forest and a number of former reserves. The river itself is not part of the park, but is a popular paddling route titled the Whanganui Journey, one of New Zealand's "Great Walks". The New Zealand Department of Conservation highlights Whanganui National Park as being the National Park most closely tied to human settlement.
In New Zealand, tangata whenua is a Māori term that translates to "people of the land". It can refer to either a specific group of people with historical claims to a district, or more broadly the Māori people as a whole.
In Māori culture, a rāhui is a form of tapu restricting access to, or use of, an area or resource by the kaitiaki (guardian/s) of the area in the spirit of kaitiakitanga. With the passing of the 1996 Fisheries Act, a rāhui was able to be imposed by the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries, a role that has since been taken over by the Ministry for Primary Industries. In the Cook Islands, raui have been put in place by the National Environment Service. Rāhui may be imposed for many reasons, including a need for conservation of food resources or because the area concerned is in a state of tapu, due, for example, to a recent death in the area, out of respect for the dead and to prevent the gathering of food there for a specified period. Rāhui may be placed on land, sea, rivers, forests, gardens, fishing grounds, and other food resources. A rāhui is given its authority by the mana of the person or group that imposes it.
Ngāti Hotu was a Māori tribe that, according to tradition, lived in the central North Island of New Zealand in the area surrounding southern Lake Taupō, where the Ngāti Tūwharetoa tribe now resides.
A pōwhiri is a Māori welcoming ceremony involving speeches, cultural performance, singing and finally the hongi. It is used to both welcome guests onto a marae or during other ceremonies, such as during a dedication of a building or at the beginning of the school year. A pōwhiri may not be performed for every group of manuhiri (visitors); a mihi whakatau may be used instead. A pōwhiri is often used for special visitors or for tūpāpaku for a tangihanga (funeral). However, a pōwhiri are also often performed for tourist groups as part of special events.
Kaitiakitanga is a New Zealand Māori term used for the concept of guardianship of the sky, the sea, and the land. A kaitiaki is a guardian, and the process and practices of protecting and looking after the environment are referred to as kaitiakitanga.
Te Āti Awa is a Māori iwi with traditional bases in the Taranaki and Wellington regions of New Zealand. Approximately 17,000 people registered their affiliation to Te Āti Awa in 2001, with around 10,000 in Taranaki, 2,000 in Wellington and around 5,000 of unspecified regional location.
Ngāriki Kaipūtahi, Ngāriki Kaiputahi or Te Iwi o Ngāriki Kaipūtahi is a Māori iwi (tribe) in the Mangatu area of Gisborne District, New Zealand. Its present-day members are all descended from Rawiri Tamanui.
The Ngāti Tama is a historic Māori tribe of present-day New Zealand. Their origins, according to Māori oral tradition, date back to Tama Ariki, the chief navigator on the Tokomaru waka. They are located in north Taranaki, around Poutama. River Mōhakatino marks their northern boundary with the Tainui and the Ngāti Maniapoto. The close geographical proximity of Tainui's Ngāti Toa of Kawhia and the Ngati Mutunga explains the long, continuous, and close relationship among these three tribes.
Ngāti Rangi or Ngāti Rangituhia is a Māori iwi (tribe) of New Zealand. Contemporary settlement is mainly around Waiouru, Ohakune, and the Upper Whanganui River in the central North Island. The iwi's area of interest extends north from the Paretetaitonga peak of Mount Ruapehu, west to the Pukupuku Stream, east to the meeting of the Moawhango and Aorangi waterways, and south to the Haumakariri Stream. Ngāti Rangi trace their ancestry to Paerangi. They believe they were in New Zealand before the first migrations from Hawaiki.
Māori are the indigenous Polynesian people of mainland New Zealand. Māori originated with settlers from East Polynesia, who arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe voyages between roughly 1320 and 1350. Over several centuries in isolation, these settlers developed their own distinctive culture, whose language, mythology, crafts, and performing arts evolved independently from those of other eastern Polynesian cultures. Some early Māori moved to the Chatham Islands, where their descendants became New Zealand's other indigenous Polynesian ethnic group, the Moriori.
Ōwairaka / Mount Albert, also known as Te Ahi-kā-a-Rakataura, is a volcanic peak and Tūpuna Maunga which dominates the landscape of the Ōwairaka and Mount Albert suburbs of Auckland.
Ngāti Whātua o Kaipara is a Māori iwi (tribe) and hapū (sub-tribe) of New Zealand, which is part of the larger Ngāti Whātua iwi. The iwi's rohe is focused around the southern Kaipara Harbour in the Auckland Region of New Zealand. Ngāti Whātua have been present in the Kaipara Harbour since the arrival of the Māhuhu-ki-te-rangi migratory waka, gradually moving towards the north. By the 17th century, Ngāti Whātua reestablished a presence in the southern Kaipara Harbour.
Tāmaki Māori are Māori iwi and hapū who have a strong connection to Tāmaki Makaurau, and whose rohe was traditionally within the region. Among Ngā Mana Whenua o Tāmaki Makaurau, also known as the Tāmaki Collective, there are thirteen iwi and hapū, organised into three rōpū (collectives), however Tāmaki Māori can also refer to subtribes and historical iwi not included in this list.
Mana motuhake is a phrase in the Māori language that means self determination, with the principle being autonomy and control. It is sometimes translated to the concept of sovereignty.