McLouth Steel is a former integrated steel company. The company was once the ninth largest steelmaker in the United States and had three locations. The first plant was in Detroit, Michigan, the second (and significantly larger) in Trenton, Michigan, and the third, a cold mill, in Gibraltar, Michigan. The Detroit and Trenton plants have been demolished, while the Gibraltar plant has been purchased and restarted by Ferrolux.
This complex was built in 1934 by Donald B. McLouth, a Detroit scrap dealer, as a small conversion mill on Livernois Avenue in Detroit. General Motors desired additional options for steel & provided partial financing. In its later years, the plant was revamped to produce only stainless steel, eventually being bought by Jones and Laughlin Steel Company in 1981.
The Detroit mill initially consisted of a small reversing hot rolling strip mill with a slab heating furnace. The original hot strip mill was known as the "Coffee Grinder" from the sounds the mill would make. In 1938, the company brought online a single 4-high reversing cold reducing mill with ancillary facilities (annealing and finishing). Throughout the next few years, modifications were made to the equipment and eventually, the company had the capacity to roll 108,000 net tons per year of hot rolled products and 60,000 net tons of cold rolled steel products.
In 1947, McLouth Steel began rolling stainless steel. Two single stand reversing cold reducing mills were installed with the related supplementary equipment. In 1954, $6,000,000 of the $100,000,000 expansion plan for the new Trenton plant was used to install two 4-high reversing cold rolling mills. With this new addition to the Detroit plant, the stainless steel production increased to 52,000 net tons per year.
The Detroit plant was a finishing facility for sheet and strip products only. Principal operating units were two 50-inch (1,300mm)., 4-high cold reduction mills, a cold anneal and pickle line, a temper mill, two slitting lines(36in. and 24in.), and a coil polisher. The two 50in. reduction mills were essentially identical. Both were installed in 1953 by United and had a combined annual capacity of 120,000 tons. The cold anneal and pickle line were installed in 1975 by Production Machinery. The line consisted of an entry end washing section to remove rolling oils, an open air annealing furnace (where the strip was heated above 1,900°F (1,040°C)), and three acid pickling tanks followed by rinsing and drying units. Paper was interleaved between the coil wraps at the exit take up reel to avoid surface abrasion.
Coil product was usually shipped from the Detroit plant via truck. The Detroit plant was demolished in 2018.
Trenton Complex
A photograph showing the majority of the Trenton, MI plant.
In 1948, McLouth Steel started its $100 million expansion program by purchasing riverfront property in Trenton, Michigan, with General Motors providing a $25 million loan.[1] Purchasing war surplus equipment from a Chicago mill (at bargain prices),[2] the first major construction program started soon afterward. The site was laid out and four 60-ton electric arc furnaces were installed. Soaking pits, a blooming mill, a Steckel mill, a down-coiler and finishing equipment were installed. The first ingots were poured in 1949, and McLouth was soon established as a growing factor in the marketplace.
A few years later, in 1954, the Trenton plant was dedicated and McLouth Steel became able to produce iron as an integrated steel mill. Number One blast furnace was constructed with a capacity of 1250 tons a day. The three original 60-ton basic oxygen furnace (BOF) vessels were installed and McLouth became the first plant in the United States to make steel via the basic oxygen process. Adding to the melt shop were two 200-ton electric arc furnaces. The reversing Steckel mill was replaced by a six stand continuous 60-inch (1,500mm) hot strip rolling mill and a roughing stand was added to complement the blooming mill. More soaking pits were installed as well as a plant to supply the BOP with oxygen. Two pickle lines were added along with the slitters.
1958 saw another major expansion of the plant. A new blast furnace was constructed (Number 2), two 110-ton BOP vessels, and the related support equipment for the BOP and blast furnaces also had their capacity increased. Gas cleaning systems were installed for the melt shop. Two Rust slab reheat furnaces were installed to handle stainless steel, as well as the massive grinder and slab unpilers. The grinders, unpilers, and the pusher/bumper units for the two furnaces were supplied by Composite Forgings, Inc.
Between 1960 and 1964, one more 110-ton BOP vessel was added, bringing the 110-ton vessel count to three. McLouth became the first company to use computer controls on a hot strip mill on November 1, 1962. Significantly, the first "straight stick" slab caster was installed during this period. It was the first in the United States.
Profitable operations as well as market demand prompted a major commitment to build a continuous casting department in 1967 with the announcement of four curved mold continuous casting strands and six lines of three induction slab reheaters. Two additional 110-ton BOP vessels were also added to replace old and obsolete equipment (the 60-ton vessels). With these improvements to McLouth's steel making process, McLouth became the first steel mill to eventually produce 100% of its product by the continuous casting process, which added significantly to the efficiency of the operations and improved the quality of the finished product.
The plant was sold in 1996 to Detroit Steel Company. Up to the early 2000s, Detroit Steel primarily brought in outside steel, pickled it, and sold it. In the summer of 2009, after several failed start-up attempts, the Trenton complex had its electric distribution infrastructure removed. In 2017, the facility entered foreclosure after owners failed to pay $3.7 million in back taxes.[3] In 2018, MSC Land Co. purchased the land, entering into an agreement to demolish all buildings and to perform some remediation. In May 2019, the site was put on EPA's Superfund National Priorities List.[4] The site is currently undergoing demolition.
Trenton Plant assets
Iron making
Two blast furnaces
Number 1 and number 2 furnaces were built in 1954 and 1958 respectively, by the Arthur McKee Company. The hearth diameter was 28' 6" with a working volume of 56,676 cubic ft.
Sinter Plant
Phased out in 1969. Very inefficient; it produced low-grade ore from wastes from the blast furnaces.
Three Ore Bridges
Built by Dravo Corp. Two cranes in 1954, with the last in 1958. 12 net tons each.
One conventional ore yard opposite of the blast furnace, and two conveyor fed auxiliary yards.
Steelmaking
Oxygen Process shop
OP 1
Three 60-ton vessels added in 1954.
First successful basic oxygen shop in the United States. This shop was dismantled in 1968 as a result of the high operating costs compared to OP 2.
OP 2
Five oxygen process vessels
Two 110-ton vessels added in 1958, one more 110-ton vessel added in 1960, two more added in 1968. All five were built by Pennsylvania Engineering Company (PECOR).
The reason that relatively small 110-ton vessels were used was due to the low ceilings in the existing building.
Melt shop
Four 60-ton electric arc furnaces installed in 1948 as the first expansion project.
Two 200-ton electric arc furnaces installed in 1954 to replace the four original furnaces.
Only a total of 39 heats produced by this process. Average time per heat was 2 hours and 15 minutes. Later dismantled and turned into the ladle metallurgy station.
The entire steelmaking building, with the exception of the lime storage building, was demolished in 2005. The lime storage building was brought down with explosives on April 18, 2010.
Continuous casting
Pilot plant
The first straight stick slab casting machine in America was installed in 1963. The machine was located south of OP 1. Schloemann was the main equipment vendor. Dismantled in 1968.
Concast department
Four low profile curved molds with progressive straightening.
Three molds cast 12" thick while the other casts 9.5". All molds could adjust the width from 36" to 57". Typical casting speed was 34-46 inches per minute for a 12" slab, and 48-55 IPM for a 9.5" slab. Maximum 120 inches per minute.
Main building was demolished in 2006.
Hot Strip mill
Furnaces
Soaking pits
5 two hole batteries. Natural gas fired. Built by Amsler Morton and the Rust Furnace Company in 1948.
Reheat Furnaces
Two conventional three zone, natural gas furnaces that were primarily used to reheat stainless and carbon slabs prior to the caster installation. 125 Net tons per hour each.
First furnace was installed in 1954. Second in 1958. Both were built by the Rust Furnace Company of Pittsburgh, PA.
Eighteen induction slab heating furnaces
Three lines of three heaters were installed in 1968, the last three lines were installed in 1969. Heaters were provided by Ajax Magnethermic and the slab handling equipment by United Engineering and Foundry.
Maximum rated capacity was 645 tons per hour.
Walking beam furnace
Built in 1985. Natural gas fired. 350 tons per hour. 1 hour heating time per slab.
Rolling
Blooming Mill
Two high 41" diameter x 92" rolls. Built by Continental in 1948. Accepted ingots up to 24" x 44" and slabs up to 57" by 12" thick. Twin 3000 horsepower motors.
Roughing Mill
Two high 43" dia. x 59.75" rolls. Built by Mesta in 1954. Twin 2500 horsepower motors.
Six Stand 60-inch (1,500mm) Rolling mill
Four high mill stand, 25.75" x 64" work rolls and 53.75" x 60" back up rolls. Built by Mesta in 1954. Five 5000 HP motors and one 3500 HP motor. Maximum entering plate was 1.25" thick. Minimum exiting strip was .071"
Two down-coilers
Installed in 1965 by Mesta. Produced a 78" maximum opening coil.
Finish departments
Pickle Line
Built by Mesta in 1954. Used sulfuric acid. The line accepted coils up to 60" at a rate of 90 net tons an hour. The line was 553 feet long.
Slitters
Number 1 slitter
This line had a maximum coil width of 44" and 70" in diameter. Slitting width was 2.001" minimum, 42.5" maximum. Built by Wean in 1948.
Number 2 slitter
60" maximum coil width, 72" diameter. 5" minimum, 55" maximum slitting width. Built in 1948 by Wean.
Number 3 slitter
60" maximum coil width, 72" diameter. 2.001" minimum, 56" maximum slitting width. Built by Wean in 1948.
Number 4 slitter
60" maximum width. 5" minimum, 56" maximum slitting width. 45,000 PSI shear. Built by Wean in 1954.
Number 5 slitter
20" minimum, 60" maximum entry coil. 50,000 PSI shear. 9" minimum slit width. Built by Production Machinery in 1964.
Pickle line and #5 slitter remained until final demolition of the plant.
Gibraltar Complex
In 1954, McLouth announced the construction of a cold rolling facility in Gibraltar, Michigan, close to the Trenton Plant. This facility has a four stand continuous cold rolling strip mill, annealing furnaces, two skin pass finishing mills and other ancillary equipment for further processing of cold rolled steel coils.
The property the company acquired was once owned by the Gibraltar Steel Corporation. The total area was around 900 acres (3.6km2) of land along the river bordering Trenton. Original plans called for five additional blast furnaces dependent upon the completion of the All American Channel, a proposed channel through parts of Gibraltar. Without the channel, ore and coal haulers could not bring in the required raw materials. McLouth failed to get the proper financing to construct another integrated mill, so plans were drawn up for a stand-alone cold rolling mill.
There was a major fire that destroyed most of the pickling tower in 1970.
The plant was operated under Detroit Cold Rolling (a subsidiary of Detroit Steel Company) from 1996 (after the McLouth sale) until it was later sold to Steel Rolling Holdings in 2006. The plant was restarted by SRH, and was later purchased by Ferrolux. Ferrolux has since invested heavily into the Gibraltar facility.
One of three original BOP furnaces from the plant
Gibraltar Plant assets
Pickle line
Pickle liquor
Hydrochloric Acid, 10,000 gallon capacity.
175°F, 10-12% HCL, 12-15% FeCL
Tower
Vertical two pass line. First of its kind in North America. 90 tons per hour maximum capacity. Built by Dravo and Mesta in 1963.
Tandem mill
Mill Stands
60" 4-high, 4-stand continuous.
Maximum 3300 feet per minute. Average speed at 2100 FPM.
Built by Continental in 1954. 1500 Horsepower motors. Maximum speed of 3200 FPM, average of 2800.
Roll sizes
32" x 60"
Finishing departments
Customer Service Line
Built by Wean in 1967. Line speed is 150' to 1000 feet per minute.
60 inch maximum width, 20 inch minimum.
Flying Shear Line
Two lines installed by Mesta in 1954. 800 FPM line speed.
Cut lengths are 48 inches to 144 inches.
Coil Slitting Line
Two lines built by Seco in 1954. 400 FPM line speed.
Legacy and achievements
First basic oxygen furnace in North America
McLouth Steel was the first company in North America to use the basic oxygen process, a process now common in the steel industry.
The original vision for the Trenton Plant included Bessemer furnaces to supplement its electric furnaces.[5] Trenton's city ordinances against pollution would not allow use of a Bessemer furnace, forcing McLouth to take a different approach.[5] McLouth turned to the rest of the world to search for a solution, finding in Austria the basic oxygen furnace.
The technology not yet operating on a scale large enough for American steelmakers, McLouth gambled on an attempt to scale the unproven basic oxygen process to its needs.[5] By 1954, McLouth's original 60-ton furnaces were in action.[5] As the process was refined and perfected (and larger furnaces were added), this technology enabled McLouth to average 30% higher profits than its competitors between 1960 and 1966.[6] The process was adopted by many large steelmakers in the years following McLouth's venture.
First online computer control
Online computer control of steel making processes became a reality with the first use of computers on a hot strip mill in 1962. McLouth Steel used a General Electric 312 computer for gauge control on the finishing train of a semi-continuous mill. The aim was to set up the initial roll gap and then establish correct gauge as soon as the head end of the strip emerged onto the runout table. The finishing train started running under continuous computer control on November 1, 1962.
"Probably the most exciting application of the GE 312 was to the hot strip mill of McLouth Steel Co. in Michigan. It was a difficult design in as much as each step in the process had to be varied on the basis of the measured values of the previous step. This required continuous high speed feedback to set the six different hot stands with absolute accuracy and reliability being essential; an error at one point could be magnified at the next, causing an entire process to go out of control. Fortunately, the GE 312 met the challenge." H. Oldfield, General Manager of the GE Computer Department.
The Solid State circuitry of a GE 312 computer was composed of 2500 diodes, 2500 transistors, and 12,000 resistors, but no magnetic core memory. There were 20 binary digits per word or per instruction. All arithmetic was fixed point. Numbers were 19 bits plus the associated positive or negative sign, not a very big number range when expressed in decimal form, just -524,287 to +524,287. The GE 312 was designed by Arnold Spielberg of the GE Computer Department, newly formed in 1957.[7]
First continuous caster
McLouth Steel was the first plant in North America to cast 100% of its steel by the continuous caster method, a method now commonly used in the steel industry.
In May 1962, McLouth personnel visited the Dillingen Steel Works in Germany, where continuously cast slabs larger than 100 square inches were first cast. Some sixteen months later, McLouth was operating a "straight stick" casting machine, the first in the United States.
Pilot plant
In 1963, a full0size single0strand, vertical casting machine was added to the original Oxygen Process Shop. The machine was operated for five years, helping to pioneer techniques that would be useful when the larger four strand shop was constructed in 1968. The pilot shop was operated mostly during the day, while the afternoon and midnight shifts would repair, modify, or tune the machine.
Initial slab sizes were 8" x 36", afterwards they began to cast bigger slabs by about 10" increments up to 10" x 52". There was a noted improvement in quality, as with the ability to cast using larger molds. The pilot plant was limited to about 50 "heats" (ladles of molten steel), from the original OP shop. Over the course of operation, the pilot plant cast a little over 300,000 tons of steel.
The five-year run of the plant produced the opportunity to help develop both the equipment and casting techniques. Extensive work was performed on the design of the molds and the casting speed relative to the slab quality.
Casting plant description
Four single-strand curved mold casting machines cast around 3000 tons per day. Only two casting machines would normally cast at one time, and many people questioned the need for four units. McLouth felt that the third caster was there for coordination reasons, while the fourth was a reserve for maintenance shutdowns. Ladles were moved by overhead bridge cranes to the casting machines, which could handle two at a time.
The record slab length for the plant was between May 9–11, 1972. The slab was 44" wide and 9,972 feet (3,039m) long, total weight was around 8,500 tons from 75 ladles. Strand two was used. [8]
First use of slab induction heating
McLouth Steel's decision to cast unusually thick slabs (12inch) led them to reheat the slabs inductively. The whole setup was difficult to undertake, as well as uneconomical to use. The giant heaters resembled upside-down toasters, and made a loud buzzing sound when in operation.
The nature of the induction heating process is such that heat input to the slab is not restricted to the surface, but actually penetrates into the slab. The depth of penetration is determined by the frequency of the electrical power supply and the metallurgical makeup of the steel.
Although induction heating was well established as an effective and economical process fulfilling many types of heating requirements, it had never been seriously considered for heating anything like the 12" thick by 60" wide by 26' long, 30-ton slabs McLouth wanted to produce. The fact that they wanted over 600 tons of steel heated per hour did nothing to help the situation.
Several induction heating companies were contacted to determine if they would be interested in a project of this magnitude. Just one company expressed interest. Ajax Magnethermic from Warren, Ohio. Ajax informed McLouth that they had a new coil design which would be capable of doing the job. After discussions, McLouth entered into a shared cost, joint development venture with the company to design, build, and test a prototype coil system.
Early in 1965, several small 12" thick slabs of rimmed steel were repetitively heated in a prototype 1,000kW rectangular coil. The tests proved that cold 12" thick slabs could be heated to rolling temperature in less than one hour.
The next year, McLouth ordered 21 heaters (including three spares) as part of a $105 million program expected to be completed by the summer of 1968. The program expanded the hot metal facilities with a four strand caster and the new induction heaters. Production capacity at the plant was raised from 1,800,000 tons a year to 2,400,000.
A full-size computer system was installed to automatically switch heaters on or off as required to rebalance the phase loading and to remove the threat of a 120 KV line outage. Detroit Edison permitted McLouth a maximum phase imbalance of 43 MW. The computer shut off heaters if a limit was reached and provided printouts of hourly demands, alarms, engineering logs, as well as maintenance logs.
Overall, the system was a novel idea, but really only worked on paper. Auto transformer failures were frequent, as were bus connection failures. When all 18 heaters were running at full capacity, McLouth Steel was Michigan's second largest consumer of electricity (first was the city of Detroit). The environmental impact was very low due to a closed water cooling system and heaters being shut off during non-operating hours. [9]
Closing
McLouth Steel's 1996 demise can be attributed to a mixture of causes.
McLouth only produced flat-rolled steel, with 75% of its customers being automotive.[1] Its attempts to diversify, including purchase of trucking/coke/ore companies, did not generate the revenue or savings projected. Multiple recessions, cheap overseas steel, and lessened steel use in cars and trucks also harmed the company.
McLouth was "top-heavy" with a ratio of 1 supervisor to every 4 workers, while the union desired 1 supervisor to every 15 workers.[10] McLouth had an extremely generous wage package, something the union was cooperative about reducing in later years as the need to cut costs increased.
In the spirit of its old slogan, "Pioneers in Steel Technology", McLouth often led the way in implementation of new processes while other steelmakers capitalized on McLouth absorbing those costs. Competitors then optimized the process, outdoing McLouth's production and efficiency.[6] Aging and incorrectly sized equipment paired with low employee morale and productivity in the 1980s and 1990s subsequently lowered the quality of steel, creating reputation problems.
Related Research Articles
Basic oxygen steelmaking, also known as Linz-Donawitz steelmaking or the oxygen converter process is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of the alloy and changes it into low-carbon steel. The process is known as basic because fluxes of burnt lime or dolomite, which are chemical bases, are added to promote the removal of impurities and protect the lining of the converter.
A steel mill or steelworks is an industrial plant for the manufacture of steel. It may be an integrated steel works carrying out all steps of steelmaking from smelting iron ore to rolled product, but may also be a plant where steel semi-finished casting products are made from molten pig iron or from scrap.
An electric arc furnace (EAF) is a furnace that heats material by means of an electric arc.
Carnegie Steel Company was a steel-producing company primarily created by Andrew Carnegie and several close associates to manage businesses at steel mills in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area in the late 19th century. The company was formed in 1892 and was subsequently sold in 1901 in one of the largest business transactions of the early 20th century, to become the major component of U.S. Steel. The sale made Carnegie one of the richest men in history.
Saldanha Steel was a South African steel company originally formed as a partnership between Iscor Limited and the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC). Saldanha Steel is now part of ArcelorMittal South Africa, which in turn is part of global steel company ArcelorMittal.
In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness, to make the thickness uniform, and/or to impart a desired mechanical property. The concept is similar to the rolling of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is known as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes. Roll stands holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel, into products such as structural steel, bar stock, and rails. Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished casting products into finished products.
Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel was a steel manufacturer based in Wheeling, West Virginia.
The Union Railroad is a Class III switching railroad located in Allegheny County in Western Pennsylvania. The company is owned by Transtar, Inc., which is itself a subsidiary of Fortress Transportation and Infrastructure Investors, after being purchased from United States Steel in 1988. The railroad's primary customers are the three plants of the USS Mon Valley Works, the USS Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the USS Irvin Works and the USS Clairton Works.
Kaiser Steel was an integrated steel mill near Fontana, California, founded by Henry J. Kaiser on December 1, 1941. The plant's first blast furnace, "Bess No. 1" was fired up on December 30, 1942, and the first steel plate was produced in August 1943 for the Pacific Coast shipbuilding industry amid World War II. The Fontana facility produced about 75 million tons of steel over its history.
The Park Gate Iron and Steel Company was a British company that smelted iron ore and turned it into rolled steel and semi-finished casting products. Its works was at Parkgate, South Yorkshire on a triangular site bounded on two sides by the main road between Rotherham and Barnsley (A633) and the North Midland Railway main line between Rotherham Masborough and Cudworth. It also operated ironstone quarries in Northamptonshire and Leicestershire.
The Edgar Thomson Steel Works is a steel mill in the Pittsburgh area communities of Braddock and North Braddock, Pennsylvania, United States. It has been active since 1875. It is currently owned by U.S. Steel and is known as Mon Valley Works – Edgar Thomson Plant on its official website.
Mobarakeh Steel Company is a private Iranian steel company, located 65 km south west of Esfahan, near the city of Mobarakeh, Esfahan Province, Iran. It is the largest steel maker of MENA region, and one of the largest industrial complexes operating in Iran. It was commissioned after the Iranian Revolution in 1979 and initiated operations during 1993. It underwent major revamping during year 2000, and is scheduled for a second and third revamping in 2009–2010, bringing the total steel output to 7,200,000 metric tons per year. The company owns the successful football club, Sepahan. In 2022, a parliamentary report indicated corruption of $3 billion, leading to the company being suspended from the Tehran stock exchange.
Stewarts & Lloyds was a steel tube manufacturer with its headquarters in Glasgow at 41 Oswald Street. The company was created in 1903 by the amalgamation of two of the largest iron and steel makers in Britain: A. & J. Stewart & Menzies, Coatbridge, North Lanarkshire, Scotland; and Lloyd & Lloyd, Birmingham, England.
Steel, Peech and Tozer was a large steel maker with works situated at Ickles and Templeborough, in Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England.
PT Krakatau Steel (Persero) Tbk is the largest steel maker in Indonesia, headquartered in Cilegon, Banten. The factory is set on a 280-hectare (700-acre) plot in the western end of Banten and adjacent to the Sunda Strait, and where the Krakatoa volcano and island from which the company takes its name are located.
JSW Ispat Steel Ltd (JISL) was set up as Nippon Denro Ispat Limited in May 1984 by founding chairman M. L. Mittal. The company has operations in iron, steel, mining, energy and infrastructure. It is listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange of India. Ispat Industries was ranked 5th among major next to Tata steel and JSW steel companies in India for the year 2008 by Business World. It is headquartered in Mumbai and employs about 3,000 people.
ALZ (Allegheny-Longdoz) is a stainless steel producer based in Genk in Limburg province, Flanders, Belgium.
The MMK Metallurgy is a multi-national steelmaking company established 2007 in Iskenderun, southern Turkey. Company's main plant, located in Dörtyol, began production in 2011 after three years of construction time. The total investment is worth of $2.7 billion.
This steelmaking plant was originally part of the Ford Motor Company, which created an integrated manufacturing complex to produce all major vehicle components at one large facility called The Rouge. In 1989, Ford's steel mill assets were divested and became known as Rouge Industries with the steel operations trading as Rouge Steel Company in Dearborn, Michigan, outside of Detroit.
The Iron and Steel Industry in Scunthorpe was established in the mid 19th century, following the discovery and exploitation of middle Lias ironstone east of Scunthorpe, Lincolnshire, England.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
