Medieval contraception

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Medieval contraception is a debated topic among historians, though methods of contraception have been developed not just in modern times. In ancient times, women attempted to protect themselves from unwanted pregnancy with various means and practices, as evidenced by ancient records. Ancient and medieval manuscripts provide glimpses into diverse birth control practices.

Contents

Spermicidal

As the first official record of contraception, an Egyptian spermicidal recipe from the period around 1525 BC was to "mix grated Acacia leaves and honey and soak a gauze bandage to be inserted into the vagina." [1] This type of contraceptive tampon could have had a spermicidal effect due to the acacia lactic acid contained in the sap which is proven effective as a spermicide.

Plant Based Oral Contraceptives

Most of the indigenous peoples around the world, as well as from European antiquity all the way to the Middle Ages, contain linkages to point to the use of plant based oral contraceptives. This type of contraception is currently regaining attention in some scientific and historian circles. [2] [3] Plant-based contraceptives and abortifacient drugs may have been widely used in antiquity and the Middle Ages, but much knowledge about ancient forms of medicinal contraception appears to have vanished. [4] Because of this, plant-based oral contraception in history is often contested, though archaeological and written record shows evidence that drugs were a reliable way to prevent conception or even induce early-term abortions. [5] Their absence from many historical texts could be due to their likely presence in anti-fertility lore which was almost exclusively limited to midwives as professionals. These bits of folklore, combined with archaeological written records, allude to what was likely a “thriving oral culture of contraception.” [6] Silphium was a plant that grew in the hills near the Greek city-state of Cyrene, Libya, located in North Africa. This plant was one example of an oral contraceptive in ancient times, based partly on Pliny's statement that it could be used "to promote the menstrual discharge." [7]

Physical Contraceptive Barriers

The ancient philosopher Aristotle wrote in The History of Animals VII, part 3 (350 B.C.E) that to avoid conception women must prevent the "womb" from coming in contact with the male sperm by rubbing it with cedar oil, lead ointment or incense, mixed with olive oil. The lead ointment was highly toxic, but the oil was proven to decrease sperm mobility by Marie Stopes in the 1930s. Around 300 AD saw the introduction of the contraceptive sponge which was inserted into the vagina, so as to prevent conception by absorbing the semen. An Indian prevention recipe from the 8th Century has survived throughout time. The cervical opening was brushed with a mixture of honey and ghee and is then rubbed or mixed with oil rock salt and used to physically block semen. The sticky honey likely reduced sperm motility, and rock salt is now regarded as a spermicide. The works of Iranian author Ibn Sina (980-1037), also known as Avicenna, has shown to have had 20 different contraceptives in his medical encyclopedia.

Behaviors

While physical methods of contraception were likely present due to their presence and referencing in historical texts, there are also some purposeful behaviors thought to be utilized in preventing unwanted pregnancy. These methods could have been used either out of personal preference, or with heavy influence from religion. Likely the most common used and easiest to hide from the church at the time was coitus interruptus.

Coitus interruptus

Coitus interruptus is an example of a contraceptive behavior utilized in Medieval times. This is the case with onanism, which is clearly distinguished from masturbation. In the biblical telling, Onan was unwilling to procreate with Tamar, so he withdrew before climax and “spilled his seed on the ground”. [8] Masturbation is seen as a form of self arousal, while onanism was viewed as a form of contraception. U.S. Senator John T. Noonan has written extensively on this topic and believed that the first, certain dated reference to onanism appeared in the ninth century. [9] At the beginning, practices of coitus interruptus has been linked to circles of prostitution and illicit love affairs within the Middle Ages. [10] From there, it took the decisive step towards widespread practice and began entering into conventional sexual relationships, such as marriage. The trigger of this development – assuming other mental and moral conditions – was provided by economic hardship. [11] Population control was not a brand new topic during the time. "If too many children are being born," stated the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, writing of the ideal city, "there are measures to check propagation." [12] Medieval demography has been linked to the church's teaching on birth control. Demographic statistics of the early fifteenth century provide evidence that married couples were limiting the number of offspring they had, likely with such methods as coitus interruptus. This was particularly true with poor couples and in periods of economic hardship. [13] The purposeful prevention of pregnancy is brought into juxtaposition with the church's moralist denunciation of contraception.

The Catholic Church

The Catholic Church sees procreation as an essential end of marriage, and entering into an intentionally childless marriage nullifies the sacrament of matrimony. [14] This goes back as far as Pope Gregory IX and his decretal dating from between 1227 and 1234 which declared that marriages contracted by parties intending to avoid having offspring were ipso facto null. [15]

See also

Related Research Articles

Coitus interruptus, also known as withdrawal, pulling out or the pull-out method, is a method of birth control during penetrative sexual intercourse, whereby the penis is withdrawn from a vagina or anus prior to ejaculation so that the ejaculate (semen) may be directed away in an effort to avoid insemination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Copper IUD</span> Birth control and emergency contraceptive device

A copper intrauterine device (IUD), also known as an intrauterine coil or copper coil or non-hormonal IUD, is a type of intrauterine device which contains copper. It is used for birth control and emergency contraception within five days of unprotected sex. It is one of the most effective forms of birth control with a one-year failure rate around 0.7%. The device is placed in the uterus and lasts up to twelve years. It may be used by women of all ages regardless of whether or not they have had children. Following removal, fertility quickly returns.

Onan was a figure detailed in the Book of Genesis chapter 38, as the second son of Judah who married the daughter of Shuah the Canaanite. Onan had an older brother Er and a younger brother, Shelah as well. After being commanded by his father, Judah, to perform his duty as a husband's brother according to the custom of levirate marriage with the late Er's wife Tamar, Onan instead refused to perform his duty as a levirate and "spilled his seed on the ground whenever he went in" because "the offspring would not be his", and was thus put to death by Yahweh. This act is detailed as retribution for being "displeasing in the sight of Lord". Onan's crime is often misinterpreted to be masturbation but it is universally agreed among biblical scholars that Onan's death is attributed to his refusal to fulfill his obligation of levirate marriage with Tamar by committing coitus interruptus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Family planning</span> Planning when to have children

Family planning is the consideration of the number of children a person wishes to have, including the choice to have no children, and the age at which they wish to have them. Things that may play a role on family planning decisions include marital situation, career or work considerations, financial situations. If sexually active, family planning may involve the use of contraception and other techniques to control the timing of reproduction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diaphragm (birth control)</span> Cervical barrier type of birth control

The diaphragm is a barrier method of birth control. It is moderately effective, with a one-year failure rate of around 12% with typical use. It is placed over the cervix with spermicide before sex and left in place for at least six hours after sex. Fitting by a healthcare provider is generally required.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nonoxynol-9</span> Chemical compound

Nonoxynol-9, sometimes abbreviated as N-9, is an organic compound that is used as a surfactant. It is a member of the nonoxynol family of nonionic surfactants. N-9 and related compounds are ingredients in various cleaning and cosmetic products. It is widely used in contraceptives for its spermicidal properties.

Spermicide is a contraceptive substance that destroys sperm, inserted vaginally prior to intercourse to prevent pregnancy. As a contraceptive, spermicide may be used alone. However, the pregnancy rate experienced by couples using only spermicide is higher than that of couples using other methods. Usually, spermicides are combined with contraceptive barrier methods such as diaphragms, condoms, cervical caps, and sponges. Combined methods are believed to result in lower pregnancy rates than either method alone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Contraceptive sponge</span> Birth control device

The contraceptive sponge combines barrier and spermicidal methods to prevent conception. Sponges work in two ways. First, the sponge is inserted into the vagina, so it can cover the cervix and prevent any sperm from entering the uterus. Secondly, the sponge contains spermicide.

Male contraceptives, also known as male birth control, are methods of preventing pregnancy that are used by males or people who produce sperm. The main forms of male contraceptives available today are condoms, vasectomy, and withdrawal, and these methods combined make up less than one-third of global contraceptive use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hormonal contraception</span> Birth control methods that act on the endocrine system

Hormonal contraception refers to birth control methods that act on the endocrine system. Almost all methods are composed of steroid hormones, although in India one selective estrogen receptor modulator is marketed as a contraceptive. The original hormonal method—the combined oral contraceptive pill—was first marketed as a contraceptive in 1960. In the ensuing decades many other delivery methods have been developed, although the oral and injectable methods are by far the most popular. Hormonal contraception is highly effective: when taken on the prescribed schedule, users of steroid hormone methods experience pregnancy rates of less than 1% per year. Perfect-use pregnancy rates for most hormonal contraceptives are usually around the 0.3% rate or less. Currently available methods can only be used by women; the development of a male hormonal contraceptive is an active research area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Comparison of birth control methods</span>

There are many methods of birth control that vary in requirements, side effects, and effectiveness. As the technology, education, and awareness about contraception has evolved, new contraception methods have been theorized and put in application. Although no method of birth control is ideal for every user, some methods remain more effective, affordable or intrusive than others. Outlined here are the different types of barrier methods, hormonal methods, various methods including spermicides, emergency contraceptives, and surgical methods and a comparison between them.

Religious adherents vary widely in their views on birth control. This can be true even between different branches of one faith, as in the case of Judaism and Christianity. Some religious believers find that their own opinions of the use of birth control differ from the beliefs espoused by the leaders of their faith, and many grapple with the ethical dilemma of what is conceived as "correct action" according to their faith, versus personal circumstance, reason, and choice. This article will discuss various views on birth control of the major world religions Christianity, Buddhism, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Baha'i.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Contraceptive implant</span> Implantable medical device used for birth control

A contraceptive implant is an implantable medical device used for the purpose of birth control. The implant may depend on the timed release of hormones to hinder ovulation or sperm development, the ability of copper to act as a natural spermicide within the uterus, or it may work using a non-hormonal, physical blocking mechanism. As with other contraceptives, a contraceptive implant is designed to prevent pregnancy, but it does not protect against sexually transmitted infections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birth control</span> Method of preventing human pregnancy

Birth control, also known as contraception, anticonception, and fertility control, is the use of methods or devices to prevent unintended pregnancy. Birth control has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods of birth control only became available in the 20th century. Planning, making available, and using human birth control is called family planning. Some cultures limit or discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally, religiously, or politically undesirable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intrauterine device</span> Form of birth control involving a device placed in the uterus

An intrauterine device (IUD), also known as intrauterine contraceptive device or coil, is a small, often T-shaped birth control device that is inserted into the uterus to prevent pregnancy. IUDs are one form of long-acting reversible birth control (LARC). One study found that female family planning providers choose LARC methods more often (41.7%) than the general public (12.1%). Among birth control methods, IUDs, along with other contraceptive implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birth control in the United States</span> History of birth control in the United States

Birth control in the United States is available in many forms. Some of the forms available at drugstores and some retail stores are male condoms, female condoms, sponges, spermicides, and over-the-counter emergency contraception. Forms available at pharmacies with a doctor's prescription or at doctor's offices are oral contraceptive pills, patches, vaginal rings, diaphragms, shots/injections, cervical caps, implantable rods, and intrauterine devices (IUDs). Sterilization procedures, including tubal ligations and vasectomies, are also performed.

The history of birth control, also known as contraception and fertility control, refers to the methods or devices that have been historically used to prevent pregnancy. Planning and provision of birth control is called family planning. In some times and cultures, abortion had none of the stigma which it has today, making birth control less important.

Women's reproductive health in the United States refers to the set of physical, mental, and social issues related to the health of women in the United States. It includes the rights of women in the United States to adequate sexual health, available contraception methods, and treatment for sexually transmitted diseases. The prevalence of women's health issues in American culture is inspired by second-wave feminism in the United States. As a result of this movement, women of the United States began to question the largely male-dominated health care system and demanded a right to information on issues regarding their physiology and anatomy. The U.S. government has made significant strides to propose solutions, like creating the Women's Health Initiative through the Office of Research on Women's Health in 1991. However, many issues still exist related to the accessibility of reproductive healthcare as well as the stigma and controversy attached to sexual health, contraception, and sexually transmitted diseases.

There are many types of contraceptive methods available in France. All contraceptives are obtained by medical prescription after a visit to a family planning specialist, a gynecologist or a midwife. An exception to this is emergency contraception, which does not require a prescription and can be obtained directly in a pharmacy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Contraception in Francoist Spain and the democratic transition</span>

Contraception in Francoist Spain (1939–1975) and the democratic transition (1975–1985) was illegal. It could not be used, sold or covered in information for dissemination. This was partly a result of Hispanic Eugenics that drew on Catholicism and opposed abortion, euthanasia and contraception while trying to create an ideologically aligned population from birth. A law enacted in 1941 saw usage, distribution and sharing of information about contraception become a criminal offense. Midwives were persecuted because of their connections to sharing contraceptive and abortion information with other women. Condoms were somewhat accessible in the Francoist period despite prohibitions against them, though they were associated with men and prostitutes. Other birth control practices were used in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s including diaphragms, coitus interruptus, the pill, and the rhythm method. Opposition to the decriminalization of contraception became much more earnest in the mid-1960s. By 1965, over 2 million units of the pill had been sold in Spain where it had been legal under certain medical conditions since the year before. Despite the Government welcoming the drop in the number of single mothers, they noted in 1975 that this was a result of more women using birth control and seeking abortions abroad.

References

  1. ↑ Birgit Seyr: prevent with plants. About the rediscovery of an ancient tradition of self-directed birth control. Ampass 2009.
  2. ↑ John Riddle: Eve's herbs:. a history of contraception and abortion in the West Harvard University Press, 1997.
  3. ↑ John Riddle: Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, inter alia, 1992.
  4. ↑ Oral Contraceptives in Ancient and Medieval Times John M. Riddle and J. Worth Estes, American Scientist . Vol. 80, No. 3 (May–June 1992), pp. 226-233 Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society.
  5. ↑ Birgit Seyr: prevent with plants. About the rediscovery of an ancient tradition of self-directed birth control. Ampass 2009.
  6. ↑ Oral Contraceptives in Ancient and Medieval Times John M. Riddle and J. Worth Estes, American Scientist . Vol. 80, No. 3 (May–June 1992), pp. 226-233 Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society.
  7. ↑ Did the ancient Romans use a natural herb for birth control?, Straight Dope, 13 October 2006.
  8. ↑ Sex Education in Medieval Christianity.Vern L. Bullough The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Aug., 1977), pp. 185-196 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
  9. ↑ Sex Education in Medieval Christianity.Vern L. Bullough The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Aug., 1977), pp. 185-196. Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
  10. ↑ Birth-Control in the West in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries. P. P. A. Biller, Past & Present, No. 94 (Feb., 1982), pp. 3-26. Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society
  11. ↑ Birth-Control in the West in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries. P. P. A. Biller, Past & Present, No. 94 (Feb., 1982), pp. 3-26. Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society
  12. ↑ Medieval Population. Josiah Cox Russell, Social Forces, Vol. 15, No. 4 (May, 1937), pp. 503-511. Published by: Oxford University Press
  13. ↑ Birth-Control in the West in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries. P. P. A. Biller, Past & Present, No. 94 (Feb., 1982), pp. 3-26. Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society
  14. ↑ N. E. Himes, Medical History of Contraception (Baltimore, 1936), pp. 135-169; "Medical History of Contraception," New England Journal.
  15. ↑ Decretales Gregorii IX, iv. 5. 78 (Corpus Juris Canonici, ed. E. Friedberg, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1879; repr. Graz, 1959, ii, col. 684)
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