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Marxism–Leninism is a communist ideology that became the largest faction of the communist movement in the world in the years following the October Revolution. It was the predominant ideology of most communist governments throughout the 20th century. It was developed in Russia by Joseph Stalin and drew on elements of Bolshevism, Leninism, Marxism, and the works of Karl Kautsky. It was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, Soviet satellite states in the Eastern Bloc, and various countries in the Non-Aligned Movement and Third World during the Cold War, as well as the Communist International after Bolshevization.
Stalinism is the totalitarian means of governing and Marxist–Leninist policies implemented in the Soviet Union (USSR) from 1924 to 1953 by dictator Joseph Stalin and in Soviet satellite states between 1944 and 1953. Stalin had previously made a career as a gangster and robber, working to fund revolutionary activities, before eventually becoming General Secretary of the Soviet Union. Stalinism included the creation of a one man totalitarian police state, rapid industrialization, the theory of socialism in one country, forced collectivization of agriculture, intensification of class conflict, a cult of personality, and subordination of the interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which Stalinism deemed the leading vanguard party of communist revolution at the time. After Stalin's death and the Khrushchev Thaw, a period of de-Stalinization began in the 1950s and 1960s, which caused the influence of Stalin's ideology to begin to wane in the USSR.
Anarcho-syndicalism is an anarchist organisational model that centres trade unions as a vehicle for class conflict. Drawing from the theory of libertarian socialism and the practice of syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalism sees trade unions as both a means to achieve immediate improvements to working conditions and to build towards a social revolution in the form of a general strike, with the ultimate aim of abolishing the state and capitalism. Anarcho-syndicalists consider trade unions to be the prefiguration of a post-capitalist society and seek to use them in order to establish workers' control of production and distribution. An anti-political ideology, anarcho-syndicalism rejects political parties and participation in parliamentary politics, considering them to be a corrupting influence on the labour movement. In order to achieve their material and economic goals, anarcho-syndicalists instead practice direct action in the form of strike actions, boycotts and sabotage. Anarcho-syndicalists also attempt to build solidarity among the working class, in order to unite workers against the exploitation of labour and build workers' self-management.
The Donbas or Donbass is a historical, cultural, and economic region in eastern Ukraine. The majority of the Donbas is occupied by Russia as a result of the Russo-Ukrainian War.
Throughout the history of the Soviet Union, tens of millions of people suffered political repression, which was an instrument of the state since the October Revolution. It culminated during the Stalin era, then declined, but it continued to exist during the "Khrushchev Thaw", followed by increased persecution of Soviet dissidents during the Brezhnev era, and it did not cease to exist until late in Mikhail Gorbachev's rule when it was ended in keeping with his policies of glasnost and perestroika.
Richard Sakwa is a British political scientist and a former professor of Russian and European politics at the University of Kent, a senior research fellow at the National Research University-Higher School of Economics in Moscow, and an honorary professor in the Faculty of Political Science at Moscow State University. He has written books about Russian, Central and Eastern European communist and post-communist politics.
Bereza Kartuska Prison was operated by Poland's Sanation government from 1934 to 1939 in Bereza Kartuska, Polesie Voivodeship. Because the inmates were detained without trial or conviction, it is considered an internment camp or concentration camp.
The Soviet famine of 1930–1933 was a famine in the major grain-producing areas of the Soviet Union, including Ukraine and different parts of Russia, including Kazakhstan, Northern Caucasus, Kuban Region, Volga Region, the South Urals, and West Siberia. Major factors included the forced collectivization of agriculture as a part of the First Five-Year Plan and forced grain procurement from farmers. These factors in conjunction with a massive investment in heavy industry decreased the agricultural workforce. Estimates conclude that 5.7 to 8.7 million people died from starvation across the Soviet Union. In addition 50 to 70 million Soviet citizens starved during the famine yet survived.
Far-left politics, also known as extreme left politics or left-wing extremism, are politics further to the left on the left–right political spectrum than the standard political left. The term does not have a single, coherent definition; some scholars consider it to be the left of communist parties, while others broaden it to include the left of social democracy. In certain instances—especially in the news media—far left has been associated with some forms of authoritarianism, anarchism, communism, and Marxism, or are characterized as groups that advocate for revolutionary socialism and related communist ideologies, or anti-capitalism and anti-globalization. Far-left terrorism consists of extremist, militant, or insurgent groups that attempt to realize their ideals through political violence rather than using democratic processes.
Politics of memory is the organisation of collective memory by political agents; the political means by which events are remembered and recorded, or discarded. Eventually, politics of memory may determine the way history is written and passed on, hence the terms history politics or politics of history. The politics of history is the effects of political influence on the representation or study of historical topics, commonly associated with the totalitarian state which use propaganda and other means to impose a specific version of history with the goal of eliminating competing perspectives about the past. In order to achieve this goal, memory regimes resort to different means such as narrating, strategic silencing, performing or renaming/remapping.
Mass killings under communist regimes occurred through a variety of means during the 20th century, including executions, famine, deaths through forced labour, deportation, starvation, and imprisonment. Some of these events have been classified as genocides or crimes against humanity. Other terms have been used to describe these events, including classicide, democide, red holocaust, and politicide. The mass killings have been studied by authors and academics and several of them have postulated the potential causes of these killings along with the factors which were associated with them. Some authors have tabulated a total death toll, consisting of all of the excess deaths which cumulatively occurred under the rule of communist states, but these death toll estimates have been criticised. Most frequently, the states and events which are studied and included in death toll estimates are the Holodomor and the Great Purge in the Soviet Union, the Great Chinese Famine and the Cultural Revolution in the People's Republic of China, and the Cambodian genocide in Democratic Kampuchea. Estimates of individuals killed range from a low of 10–20 million to as high as 148 million.
Taras Kuzio is a Professor of Political Science at the National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. His area of study is Russian and Ukrainian political, economic and security affairs.
Steven R. Rosefielde is professor of comparative economic systems at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He is also a member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences.
Elena Korosteleva is a dissident academic researcher and principal investigator focusing on governance, democratisation, complexity and resilience. She is Professor of Politics and Global Sustainable Development and Director of the Institute for Global Sustainable Development at the University of Warwick and is visiting professor at the Oxford Belarus Observatory at the Oxford University.
Stephen George Wheatcroft is a Professorial Fellow of the School of Historical Studies at the University of Melbourne. His research interests include Russian pre-revolutionary and Soviet social, economic and demographic history, as well as famine and food supply problems in modern world history, the impact of media on history, and in recent developments in Russian and Ukrainian society. Wheatcroft speaks Russian fluently and has spent a good portion of his career researching in the Soviet archives, and he played a major role in publishing materials from the archives.
The Holocaust in the Soviet Union was the genocide of at least 2 million Soviet Jews by Nazi Germany, Romania, and local collaborators during the German-Soviet War, part of the wider Holocaust and World War II. It may also refer to the Holocaust in the Baltic states, recently annexed by the Soviet Union before the start of Operation Barbarossa, as well as other groups murdered in the invasion.
The "double genocide theory" claims that two genocides of equal severity occurred during World War II: it alleges that the Soviet Union committed atrocities against Eastern Europeans that were equivalent in scale and nature to the Holocaust, in which approximately six million Jews were systematically murdered by Nazi Germany. The theory first gained popularity in Lithuania after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, particularly with regard to discussions about the Holocaust in Lithuania. A more extreme version of the theory is antisemitic and vindicates the actions of Nazi collaborators as retaliatory by accusing Jews of complicity in Soviet repression, especially in Lithuania, eastern Poland, and northern Romania. Scholars have criticized the double genocide theory as a form of Holocaust trivialization.
This bibliography includes major books and articles about British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and her policies in office.
Estimates of the number of deaths attributable to the Soviet revolutionary and dictator Joseph Stalin vary widely. The scholarly consensus affirms that archival materials declassified in 1991 contain irrefutable data far superior to sources used prior to 1991, such as statements from emigres and other informants.
Jade Selena McGlynn is a British researcher, lecturer, linguist, historian, and author specialising in modern Eastern Europe, particularly Russia under Vladimir Putin. As research fellow at the Department of War Studies, King's College London, her work has focussed on the Russo-Ukrainian War since 2014, as well as identity construction, memory politics, propaganda, and state-society relations in the Russian Federation. McGlynn is also affiliated with the Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages at the University of Oxford.
References
- ↑ Stone, Dan (2012). "Memory Wars in the 'New Europe'". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199560981.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-956098-1.
- ↑ Koposov, Nikolay (2017). Memory Laws, Memory Wars. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-41972-7.
- ↑ Stora, Benjamin; Stevens, Mary (2007). "STILL FIGHTING: The Battle of Algiers, Censorship and the 'Memory Wars'". Interventions. 9 (3): 365–370. doi:10.1080/13698010701618596. S2CID 159510648.
- ↑ Rutten, Ellen (2013). "Why Digital Memory Studies Should Not Overlook Eastern Europe's Memory Wars". Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 219–231. ISBN 978-1-137-32206-7.
- ↑ Portnov, Andriy (2013). "Memory Wars in Post-Soviet Ukraine (1991–2010)". Memory and Theory in Eastern Europe. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 233–254. ISBN 978-1-137-32206-7.
- ↑ Steen, Jasper van der (7 August 2015). Memory Wars in the Low Countries, 1566-1700. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-30049-1.
- ↑ Nolan, Mary (2005). "Air Wars, Memory Wars". Central European History. 38 (1): 7–40. doi:10.1163/1569161053623651. S2CID 145596467.
- ↑ Shevel, Oxana (2016). 2. No Way Out? Post-Soviet Ukraine's Memory Wars in Comparative Perspective. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-0010-2.
- ↑ Cray, Robert E. (1997). "Major John André and the Three Captors: Class Dynamics and Revolutionary Memory Wars in the Early Republic, 1780-1831". Journal of the Early Republic. 17 (3): 371–397. doi:10.2307/3123941. ISSN 0275-1275. JSTOR 3123941.
- ↑ Fedor, Julie (2015). "War Museums and Memory Wars in Contemporary Poland". A Companion to Heritage Studies. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 243–253. ISBN 978-1-118-48663-4.
- ↑ Zhurzhenko, Tatiana (2013). "Memory Wars and Reconciliation in the Ukrainian–Polish Borderlands: Geopolitics of Memory from a Local Perspective". History, Memory and Politics in Central and Eastern Europe: Memory Games. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 173–192. ISBN 978-1-137-30205-2.
- ↑ Cohen, Stanley (2001). "Memory wars and peace commissions". Index on Censorship. 30 (1): 39–48. doi: 10.1080/03064220108536869 . S2CID 145151537.
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