Established in 1981, the Eisenhower Foundation serves as a non-governmental organization that builds upon the work of two Presidential Commissions. These commissions include the bipartisan National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (commonly known as the Kerner Riot Commission), which operated from 1967 to 1968 and examined the civil unrest in major cities such as Detroit, Newark, and Los Angeles. The second commission, the bipartisan National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (also known as the National Violence Commission), was active from 1968 to 1969 and focused on addressing the causes and prevention of violence following the assassinations of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Senator Robert F. Kennedy. The Eisenhower Foundation carries forward the objectives and initiatives of these commissions in the private sector.
The Kerner Riot Commission reached the notable conclusion that the United States was heading towards two separate and unequal societies—one black and one white. The commission emphasized the need to fulfill the promises of American democracy for all citizens, regardless of their racial, ethnic, or minority backgrounds, including urban and rural populations. It regarded the federal government as the sole institution possessing the authority and resources to address the issue on a scale commensurate with its magnitude. The commission identified unemployment and underemployment as the most significant and persistent grievances, inadequate education, segregation, and a racially biased criminal justice system. Consequently, the commission advocated for well-funded and sustained federal investments in various areas, such as employment, job training, education, housing, income support, civil rights enforcement, and police reform. Additionally, the commission criticized certain media segments for insufficiently reporting on the root causes of civil disorder and underlying racial issues. Ultimately, the Kerner Commission emphasized the need for new attitudes, understanding, and, most importantly, a renewed determination to implement its recommendations at a national level.[1]
U.S. National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence
The Kerner Commission report was released in March 1968, following which Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in April 1968, and Senator Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated in June 1968. Subsequently, the National Violence Commission was established. In its final report the following year, the Violence Commission, like the Kerner Commission, emphasized that the lack of employment and educational opportunities in inner-city neighborhoods was the most significant policy concern. This issue was situated within a broader American economy emphasizing material success and a culture of violence, which the media effectively portrayed.
The combination of being a young, impoverished male with limited education and no means of escape from a challenging urban environment, coupled with a desire for what society deems available but predominantly accessible to others, and witnessing illegitimate and often violent methods used to achieve material success with impunity, create an immense influence that draws many towards criminality and delinquency. Moreover, the experience of discrimination and segregation faced by African American, Mexican American, or Puerto Rican American individuals further amplifies the pull of these criminogenic factors.
The Commission recommended substantial investments of $20 billion per year in 1968 dollars for job creation, training, and education. The Violence Commission advocated for a comprehensive realignment of national priorities, aligning with the Kerner Commission's moral vision that no higher claim could be placed on the nation's conscience. A majority of the National Violence Commission members, including both Republicans and Democrats, proposed measures such as the confiscation of most handguns, restrictions on new handgun ownership for individuals who could demonstrate a reasonable need, and the registration of rifle and shotgun owners. The Violence Commission concluded that throughout human history, the decline of great civilizations primarily resulted from internal decay rather than external assault. Therefore, the Commission emphasized that the response to these internal challenges would determine the greatness and durability of the nation.[2]
Trustees
The founding and early Eisenhower Foundation Trustees included individuals such as A. Leon Higginbotham, who served as Vice Chairman of the National Violence Commission; Fred R. Harris, a Member of the Kerner Riot Commission and United States Senator; and Nicholas deB. Katzenbach chaired the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice and served as Attorney General of the United States. Other notable individuals among the early trustees were David Ginsburg, Milton S. Eisenhower, Patricia Roberts Harris, Edward W. Brooke, Marvin E. Wolfgang, Henry G. Cisneros, Lloyd N. Cutler, Elmer B. Staats, James W. Rouse, and Frank Stanton.
By 2015, the trustees of the Eisenhower Foundation included Dr. Charles Austin, Professor James Comer, Mr. Pablo Eisenberg, Mr. Jeff Faux, Ms. Marilyn Melkonian, Dr. Dora Nevares, Dr. Joseph Duffey, Mr. Thomas Frazier, Dr. Andrew Hahn, Mr. John Knott, Professor Richard Lerner, Dr. Robert McChesney, Ms. Loretta Metoxen, Mr. Darrel Stephens, and Mr. Roger Wilkins.
Alan Curtis, who also served as a founding trustee, was the foundation's founding president and CEO. Curtis had extensive experience, including being involved in the Crimes of Violence Task Force on the National Violence Commission, serving as the first Executive Director of President Jimmy Carter's Urban and Regional Policy Group, and leading the Urban Initiatives Anti-Crime Program in public housing as part of the National Urban Policy.
Taking into account the findings of the two commissions, Curtis and the other founding trustees of the Eisenhower Foundation defined the organization's mission as identifying, funding, replicating, evaluating, communicating, advocating for, and scaling up politically viable initiatives that employ wraparound and evidence-based strategies for the benefit of inner-city and high-risk racial minority youth.
Framing Solutions Before They Became Fashionable
In its programs and policy reports, starting in the 1980s and 1990s, the Eisenhower Foundation has presented principles and themes that have gained broad acceptance over time. For instance, in a 1985 update by the National Violence Commission, the Foundation advocated for "[inner city] solutions that are supported by scientific research." In a 1990 report, the Foundation emphasized the need for higher evaluation standards. Today, pursuing "evidence-based" policy is actively embraced in both the public and private sectors.
The Foundation has consistently advocated for policy expansion based on effective approaches and the discontinuation of ineffective ones, as highlighted in its Congressional testimony titled "Doing What Works" in 1991 and the 1993 update by the Kerner Riot Commission. In his 2008 Inaugural Address, President Obama emphasized the intention to "build on what works."
In reports from 1985 and 1990, the Foundation called for an "inner city" policy that local nonprofit organizations with deep roots in the community implement. Today, a substantial body of practitioners and policymakers support grassroots-based "bubble up" policies rather than "trickle down" approaches imposed by larger institutions, whether public or private.
Since 1985, with subsequent reports in 1990 and 1997, the Foundation has argued against isolated interventions and advocated for comprehensive, interrelated, and self-reinforcing "multiple solutions to multiple problems" targeted at specific inner-city neighborhoods. This type of policy, known as "place-based," is exemplified by initiatives like the Department of Education's Promise Neighborhoods and related efforts by HUD, the Department of Justice, and other agencies.
Drawing from the original National Violence Commission reports and continuing through subsequent updates by the Violence and Kerner Commissions, the Foundation has called for community-based, problem-oriented policing that is sensitive to racial minorities. Additionally, the Foundation has voiced concerns about the expansion of a prison-industrial complex with racial biases. Today, there is widespread concern about police insensitivity towards racial minorities, particularly in light of numerous high-profile incidents involving the killings of minority individuals, especially youth. This has contributed to a growing movement aiming to reduce the prison population.
Organizing Inner City Neighborhoods: Ford Foundation Support
The Foundation initiated a national youth development and crime prevention demonstration program in the early and mid-1980s, supported by funding from the Ford Foundation, IBM, and various local matching partners.
Through subgrants to local nonprofit organizations, the Foundation allocated modest resources, typically totaling $50,000 to $70,000 over a span of 36 months. Emphasis was placed on community organizing, although some sites went beyond that. One notable success was the Around the Corner to the World program in Washington, D.C.'s Adams-Morgan neighborhood, which originated from Jubilee Housing, a nonprofit enterprise established by developer James Rouse, a former Eisenhower Foundation Trustee, and his Enterprise Foundation. Additional funding from the Department of Health and Human Services enabled the establishment of a weatherization business that generated employment opportunities for unemployed young adults. Although the evaluation conducted by Rutgers University lacked control or comparison groups, it revealed a significant decline in criminal involvement among program participants, contrasting with a different pattern observed in Adams Morgan and Washington, D.C. as a whole.[3]
Across all ten sites funded by the Ford Foundation, several practical lessons were learned, including:
Inner-city indigenous nonprofit organizations can effectively lead prevention and youth development efforts.
Providing technical assistance to nonprofits enhances the likelihood of success.
Adequate resources are essential for achieving positive outcomes, and relying solely on concepts like "volunteerism," "self-sufficiency," and "empowerment" without the sufficient commitment to resources is impractical.
Establishing more prevention partnerships and fostering trust among inner-city nonprofit organizations, community residents, youth, and the police is crucial.
Building upon these lessons and securing additional funding from the Department of Health and Human Services and other sources, the Foundation continued replicating neighborhood-based prevention programs in other locations. The Eisenhower Foundation staff offered technical assistance to strengthen the institutional capacity of local nonprofit organizations.
Creating Inner City Youth Safe Havens and Police Ministations
Based on the practical experiences of early demonstrations, the Eisenhower Foundation developed a new model called the Youth Safe Haven-Police Ministration Program in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This model combined two concepts: the Carnegie Corporation's 1992 report, "A Matter of Time," which highlighted the vulnerability of inner-city youth during after-school hours,[4] and the Japanese idea of neighborhood police administration called "koban," which is credited with contributing to Japan's low crime rates.
The Foundation, with funding from Japanese corporations, the Japanese Keidanren, and the Center for Global Partnership, organized several delegations of American police chiefs, senior police officials, and inner-city community leaders to visit Japan and observe kobans. Upon their return, delegates with the most interest in the concept were funded by the Foundation to implement a combination of safe haven programs inspired by Carnegie and Koban-inspired police administration. These Safe Haven-Ministations were established and operated by indigenous inner-city nonprofit organizations in the United States. They provided a safe space for primary and middle school children after school, offering mentoring, homework assistance, computer learning, youth development guidance, sports and cultural activities, and advocacy support. Police officers also participated in the program, engaging in community-based policing and problem-solving within the immediate neighborhood.
For the initial implementation of Safe Haven-Ministations in the United States, the Foundation matched Japanese funding with resources from the United States Department of Justice. Throughout the 1990s, these programs were launched in various cities, including Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, and San Juan. FBI-reported serious crime in the neighborhoods where the program was implemented in these cities decreased by 22 to 27 percent, which was significantly greater than declines observed in nearby comparable neighborhoods and the cities as a whole.
In addition to the examples mentioned above, other cities that have experienced evidence-based success with the Safe Haven-Ministation model include Columbia, SC; Canton, OH; Jackson, MS; Baltimore, MD; and Dover, NH.[5] Funding for these programs has been provided by government departments such as the Department of Justice, the Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the Department of Education, as well as foundations like Ford, Casey, and Kellogg.
Various media outlets, including ABC, CBS, BBC, the New York Times, Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, Guardian, Economist, Ashai Evening News, Mianchi Shimbun, and regional newspapers, have covered the Safe Haven-Ministation programs.[6] The model has also been recognized as a best practice by the Department of Housing and Urban Development.[7]
The Foundation's goal is to expand the implementation of Safe Haven-Ministations in more cities, motivated by the racial tensions that exist between minority youth and the police in the United States. The model offers the potential to simultaneously reduce crime, alleviate citizen fear, improve the lives of children and youth, and enhance community-police trust. The Foundation views the Safe Haven-Ministation model as a more effective alternative to previous strategies such as "zero tolerance," "stop and frisk," and "broken windows" policing, which have contributed to police killings and current racial tensions, as exemplified by the incidents in Ferguson, MO, and West Baltimore.[8]
Creating Quantum Opportunities
The Eisenhower Foundation conducted research on Safe Haven-Ministations and found that while they were popular among minority youth aged 7 to 12, they were less appealing to high-risk minority high school youth due to their different developmental needs and conflicts with the police. To address this, the Foundation developed the Quantum Opportunities Program, an improved version of a previous program that had initial success but struggled to scale up.
With support from the Department of Justice and private sector resources, the Foundation provided funding to local nonprofit organizations to target high-risk racial minority youth in high schools located in inner-city neighborhoods. The program involved intensive mentoring, advocacy, tutoring, life skills training, college preparation, youth leadership training, and modest stipends. An evaluation of Quantum Opportunities in multiple locations showed higher grades, graduation rates, and college acceptance rates for participants. The outcomes were statistically significant, leading to the recognition of Quantum as an exemplary evidence-based model by peer reviewers and organizations like the Department of Justice, the National Mentoring Resource Center, and Child Trends.
The success of Quantum has prompted the Foundation to seek its expansion and national sustainability, aiming to implement the program in high-risk, high schools across the country. Quantum has received media coverage, including an interview on ABC Boston, and has garnered support from various institutions and organizations. The Foundation believes that Quantum can address the needs of students in underperforming high schools by offering an alternative evidence-based model that bypasses some of the ongoing debates and controversies surrounding urban school systems.[9]
In addition to Quantum Opportunities, the Foundation has replicated job training programs for inner-city youth that can complement Quantum Opportunities. These programs, such as Project Prepare and Argus Learning for Living, provide job training to high school students and young adults who have dropped out of school. The Foundation has collaborated with other organizations and replicated successful models in different locations.
As part of its multiple solutions approach, the Foundation plans to replicate Quantum in combination with Argus at the exact locations, targeting high school students and dropouts.[10] The Foundation's initiatives, emphasizing the importance of alternative education and job training programs in addressing long-term problems and combating poverty.[11]
Updating the Presidential Commissions and Communicating the Findings
The Eisenhower Foundation has conducted program replications and evaluations in inner cities, resulting in reports authored or coauthored by Curtis and other Trustees. These reports aim to communicate successful strategies and learn from unsuccessful ones.
One of the Foundation's "Youth Investment and Community Reconstruction" reports focuses on a Ford Foundation-funded program that addressed youth development and crime prevention in 10 inner cities. The report summarizes the Foundation's demonstrations, describes the next generation of private-sector ventures, and proposes new national policies for inner cities based on practical experience.
Since the early 1980s, the Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation has been working to implement the agendas of the President's National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders and the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. The Foundation focuses on reducing urban violence and drug abuse through youth empowerment, community revitalization, and grassroots action. In 1982, the Foundation launched a neighborhood self-help crime prevention program in 10 inner cities based on these principles. Over the years, the Foundation has learned from failures and successes, answering previously challenging questions. The report addresses the effectiveness of specific strategies such as neighborhood watch, the roles of different organizations and agencies, and the use of volunteers in inner cities. It concludes that community-based organizations can effectively reduce crime and drug abuse in inner cities through comprehensive and well-funded programs.
The report received media coverage in the Washington Post by columnist David Broder and was covered internationally by the Economist.[12]
Another report, titled "Youth Investment and Police Mentoring," focuses on the evaluation of the Safe Haven-Ministation replications. This report led to coverage on ABC World News Tonight, BBC, Washington Post, Economist, Time, and Newsweek.[13]
Through the replication of evidence-based model programs, the Foundation has also enhanced the institutional capacity of local nonprofit organizations. The Foundation published a report in 2000 titled "Lessons From the Street: Capacity Building and Replication," which details the technical assistance provided to local nonprofits in areas such as organizational management, financial management, staff development, and fundraising.[14]
The Foundation's replications and reports on successful inner city programs have influenced broader policy updates of the Kerner Riot Commission and National Violence Commission.
Foundation President Alan Curtis has been involved in authoring and editing the Foundation's updates of the Kerner Riot Commission, including the 25, 30, and 40-year updates. These updates have received media coverage and were discussed in various forums and hearings organized by the Foundation.
In 2008, Curtis and former Senator Fred R. Harris released the 40-year update of the Kerner Commission, titled "What Together We Can Do." The report highlights progress made since the original Kerner report, but also addresses persistent issues such as child poverty, income inequality, educational disparities, and high incarceration rates. The report provides recommendations for employment, economic, and education reforms, including the creation of safe haven investment neighborhoods and a new fair economic deal movement.
The 40-year update was covered by PBS Bill Moyers Journal, which included interviews and coverage of pre-report hearings in Detroit and Newark.[15]
Related Research Articles
The U.S. National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence was formed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in Executive Order 11412 on June 10, 1968, after the April 4 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the June 5 assassination of Robert F. Kennedy.
America's Promise Alliance is the nation's largest cross-sector alliance of nonprofit, community organizations, businesses, and government organizations dedicated to improving the lives of young people.
The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, known as the Kerner Commission after its chair, Governor Otto Kerner Jr. of Illinois, was an 11-member Presidential Commission established in July 1967 by President Lyndon B. Johnson in Executive Order 11365 to investigate the causes of urban riots in the United States during the summer of 1967, and to provide recommendations to the government for the future.
The 1991 Washington, D.C., riot, sometimes referred to as the Mount Pleasant riot or Mount Pleasant Disturbance, occurred in May 1991, when rioting broke out in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in response to an African-American female police officer having shot a Salvadoran man in the chest following a Cinco de Mayo celebration.
Crime prevention is the attempt to reduce and deter crime and criminals. It is applied specifically to efforts made by governments to reduce crime, enforce the law, and maintain criminal justice.
Citizen Corps is a program under the Department of Homeland Security that provides training for the population of the United States to assist in the recovery after a disaster or terrorist attack. Each local Citizen Corps Council partners with organizations, volunteers and businesses to organize responders, volunteers and professional first responders for an efficient response so efforts are not wasted by being duplicated. By training in Incident Command, volunteers know whom to report to and how the incident is organized. This prevents sites from being inundated by untrained and unprepared personnel preventing operation. Citizen Corps also works in conjunction with the Corporation for National and Community Service in promoting national service opportunities for promoting homeland security needs.
Operation Ceasefire (also known as the Boston Gun Project and the Boston Miracle) is a problem-oriented policing initiative implemented in 1996 in Boston, Massachusetts. The program was specifically aimed at youth gun violence as a large-scale problem. The plan is based on the work of criminologist David M. Kennedy.
The Audre Lorde Project is a Brooklyn, New York–based organization for LGBT people of color. The organization concentrates on community organizing and radical nonviolent activism around progressive issues within New York City, especially relating to LGBT communities, AIDS and HIV activism, pro-immigrant activism, prison reform and organizing among youth of color. It is named for the lesbian-feminist poet and activist Audre Lorde and was founded in 1994.
Juvenile delinquency in the United States refers to crimes committed by children or young people, particularly those under the age of eighteen.
The Millennium Breach: The American Dilemma, Richer and Poorer was sponsored by the Eisenhower Foundation to mark the thirtieth anniversary of the Kerner Report on March 1, 1998. The Kerner Report was released by the Kerner Commission, a committee established by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1968 to investigate the causes of the 1967 race riots in the United States and to provide recommendations for the future. The infamous passage of the Kerner Report found, "Our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—-separate and unequal."
The long, hot summer of 1967 refers to the more than 150 race riots that erupted across the United States in the summer of 1967. In June there were riots in Atlanta, Boston, Cincinnati, Buffalo, and Tampa. In July there were riots in Birmingham, Chicago, Detroit, Minneapolis, Milwaukee, Newark, New Britain, New York City, Plainfield, Rochester, and Toledo.
Cure Violence is a public health approach to violence prevention and reduction. It aims to stop the spread of violence in communities by using the methods and strategies associated with epidemic disease control: detecting and interrupting conflicts, identifying and treating the highest risk individuals, and changing social norms.
David M. Kennedy is a criminologist, professor, action researcher, and author specializing in crime prevention among inner city gangs, especially in the prevention of violent acts among street gangs. Kennedy developed the Operation Ceasefire group violence intervention in Boston in the 1990s and the High Point Model drug market intervention in High Point, North Carolina, in 2003, which have proven to reduce violence and eliminate overt drug markets in jurisdictions around the United States. He founded the National Network for Safe Communities in 2009 to support cities using these and related strategies.
The David Bohnett Foundation is a private foundation that gives grants to organizations that focus on its core giving areas – primarily Los Angeles area programs and LGBT rights in the United States, as well as leadership initiatives and voter education, gun violence prevention, and animal language research. As of 2022, the foundation has donated $125million to nonprofit organizations and initiatives.
Locked in the Poorhouse: Cities, Race, and Poverty in the United States is a 30-year update of the final report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, co-authored by former Kerner Commissioner, Senator and Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation Chairman Fred R. Harris and Eisenhower Foundation President Alan Curtis. The book was released in 1998 with a companion volume, The Millennium Breach.
Alan Curtis, also known as Lynn Alan Curtis, is an American social scientist, public policy advisor, author and speaker who is the founding president and CEO of the Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation. The foundation was founded In 1981 the private sector continuation of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders and the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence.
Chicago Foundation for Women (CFW) is a nonprofit grantmaking organization that focuses on creating opportunities and resources for women in the Chicago area. Many Chicago based organizations such as South Side Giving Circle and LBTQ Giving Council further help women that face violence, poverty, and discrimination using the resources from CFW. CFW receives donations from individuals and corporations, grants from other organizations, the MacArthur Foundation, and partners, The Eleanor Neal foundation, to invest in organizations providing services to Chicago area women in need.
The term ghetto riots, also termed ghetto rebellions, race riots, or negro riots refers to summer social unrest across the United States in the mid-to-late 1960s, characterized by African American groups using violent tactics.
Community crime prevention relates to interventions designed to bring reform to the social conditions that influence, and encourage, offending in residential communities. Community crime prevention has a focus on both the social and local institutions found within communities which can influence crime rates, specifically juvenile delinquency.
Youth Empowerment for Advancement Hangout, also known as YEAH Philly, is a non-profit community organization based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, that works with teens and young adults who have been impacted by violence. It was founded in 2018 by Kendra Van de Water and James Aye as a Black-led organization in an effort to increase the voice of young people and decrease violence in Philadelphia. YEAH Philly describes itself as envisioning "a Philadelphia where teens and young adults lead the way in successfully resolving violent conflicts with bold and culturally relevant practices".
References
↑ National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Final Report. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1968.
↑ National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. Final Report. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 1969.
↑ Chavis, David M., R. Kopacsi and W. Tatum. A Retrospective Examination of Around the Corner to the World. New Brunswick: Center for Community Education, School of Social Work, Rutgers University, 1989.
↑ Carnegie Corporation. A Matter of Time: Risk and Opportunity in the Nonschool House. New York: Carnegie Corporation, 1992.
↑ Hillenbrand, Barry. "Kobans and Robbers." Time.com, April 20, 2001.
↑ ABC World News Tonight with Peter Jennings. "Reducing Crime." Washington DC: ABC News, February 18, 1998.
↑ Center for Visionary Leadership. A Guide to Best Practices. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1998.
↑ New York Times Editorial Board. "The Death of Michael Brown: Racial History Behind the Ferguson Protests, August 12, 2014; Robinson, Eugene. "Freddie Gray Never Had a Chance." Washington Post, May 1, 2015; Harcourt, Bernard E. Illusion of Order: The False Promise of Broken Windows Policing. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011.
↑ Kirp, David L. "Left Behind No Longer." New York Times, December 1, 2015
↑ McNamee, Tom. "Project Prepare Hailed as Career Boost for Kids," Chicago Sun-Times, November 14, 1990; Johnson, Patti, "Teen Mom Praises Project," Des Moines Register, July 24, 1996; Drake, Emily Boer, and Steven LaFrance. Findings on Youth Employment Training Best Practices. San Francisco: LaFrance Associates, September 2006; Drake, Emily Boer, and Steven LaFrance, Findings on Best Practices of Community Re-Entry Programs for Previously Incarcerated Persons. LaFrance Associates: San Francisco: May 2007; Eller, Donnelle. "$250,000 Grant a Boost for Green Jobs Training," Des Moines Register, Des Moines, IA, January 7, 2011; Reynolds, David. "Gemeinschaft Home Graduates Excited and Anxious," Harrisonburg Daily-News Record. January 20, 2007. Individuals and publications have endorsed
↑ Shriver, Mark R. "We Know What Works." Baltimore Sun, March 16, 1991.
↑ Broder, David S. "Program, Not Prisons," Washington Post, November 14, 1990;Economist, "Crime in America," December 22, 1990.
↑ ABC World News Tonight with Peter Jennings. "Reducing Crime." Washington DC: ABC News, February 18, 1998; BBC Radio 5 Live. Nick Bryant in Washington, March 30, April 1 and April 2, 1998; Peirce, Neal R. "Kobans' and Safe Havens – the Formula We've Been Waiting For?' Washington Post Writer's Group, Washington Post, February 22, 1998; Economist, "Fighting Crime Japanese-Style." August 7–13, 1999; Hillenbrand, Barry. "Kobans and Robbers." Time.com, April 20, 2001; Cose, Ellis. "Cracks in the Thin Blue Line." Newsweek, April 10, 2000.
↑ Curtis, Lynn A. "Lessons from the Street: Capacity Building and Replication," Journal of Nonprofit Management, Volume 9, Number 2, February 2000; Greene, Stephen G. "Getting the Basics Right," Chronicle of Philanthropy, May 3, 2001.
↑ PBS Bill Moyers Journal. "Forty Years After the Kerner Commission," March 28, 2008
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