Muted group theory

Last updated

Muted Group Theory (MGT) is a communication theory developed by cultural anthropologist Edwin Ardener and feminist scholar Shirley Ardener in 1975, that exposes the sociolinguistic power imbalances that can suppress social groups' voices. [1]

Contents

Mutedness refers to inequitable barriers that disallow a social group from expressing themselves. [1] The theory details the interlinked relationship between a dominant group and subordinate group(s) through two pathways:

1). The dominant group constructs the language system that is imbued with social norms and vocabulary [1]

2). Subordinate group(s) assimilate by learning the dominant language to communicate [1]

Subordinate groups may not be able to articulate their thoughts clearly to the dominant group, further complicating the translation process and resulting in misinterpretation. [1] Muted group theory also applies to marginalized groups whose voices may be disregarded by the dominant group. Essentially speaking, language in its derivatives and usage pertain only to a single-axis representation, and inherent understanding, of what is a multi-axis reality.

Muted group theory relies on the theoretical framework built by Edwin Ardener and feminist scholars as well as key concepts including mutedness and the muting process that marginalized groups face. Muted group theory is extended into real-world applications including mass media, social rituals, the workplace, politics, education, theology and is critiqued by other theorists that evaluate the differentiation in communication styles between dominant and subordinate groups.

Overview

History

In 1968, Edwin Ardener pointed out a phenomenon where anthropologists had difficulties reproducing models of the society from women's perspectives, if they (the models) do not conform to those generated by men. [2]

In 1971, Shirley Ardener cited instances from feminism movements to articulate how women as a muted group used body symbolism to justify their actions and arguments in her article "Sexual Insult and Female Militancy". [2] [3]

In 1975, Shirley Ardener reprinted Edwin's paper "The Interpretation of Ritual,1972" and included her sexual insult text in the book "Perceiving Women", for which she wrote an intro. [2]

Origin

Ardener's Dominant Group vs Muted Group Screen Shot 2015-11-21 at 10.26.45 PM.png
Ardener's Dominant Group vs Muted Group

British anthropologist, Edwin Ardener, fleshed out muted group theory in the field of cultural anthropology. The first formulation of MGT emerges from one of Edwin Ardener's short essays, entitled "Belief and the Problem of Women." In social anthropology, the problem of women is divided in two parts: technical and analytical. [4] The technical problem is that although half of the population is female, ethnographers have neglected them in social anthropological studies. Ardener added that women were reportedly more difficult to access and interview, especially due to factors including "they giggle when young, snort when old, reject the question and the like." [4]

Ardener wrote that "those trained in ethnography evidently have a bias towards the kinds of models that men are ready to provide (or to concur in) rather than towards any that women might provide." [5] Ardener argued that men produce and control symbolic production in society.

The technicality interlinks with the analytical aspect of the problem of women through the question: "[…] if the models of society made by most ethnographers tend to be models derived from the male portion of that society, how does the symbolic weight of the other mass of persons express itself?" [5]

After conducting an experiment with the information in his essay, the results indicated that the male point of view dominates society. The graph shows that the standard solid line reflects men's dominance. [5] In contrast, women's perspectives is considered insignificant, falling into the muted category with the graph's broken line. According to Ardener, because male-based understandings of society represent the dominant worldview, certain groups are silenced or muted. [4]

He wrote: "In these terms if the male perception yields a dominant structure, the female one is a muted structure." [5] As part of the critical approach to the world, Ardener uses MGT to explore the power and societal structure in relation to the dynamism between dominant and subordinated groups. Moreover, Ardener's concept of muted groups does not only apply to women but can also be applied to marginalized groups within social structures. [5]

Expansion

Muted group theory through the feminist lens

Feminist scholars Cheris Kramarae, Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley explored sociolinguistics that “defines, deprecates, and ignores women." [6] They limited their research especially in the gender culture, whereas the Ardeners were applying MGT across different cultures. [6] The scholars discovered that "male dominance affects more than just the way sexes speak but the content and structure of the English language. Women are often defined by their relation to men (“Miss/Mrs.” or “Harold's Widow”) while men have more autonomous varied linguistic status." [6] Kramarae attributed the series of phenomena to the "man-made language" conception and stated that women would be identified as a muted group. [7]

Inspired from Kramarae's pieces, scholars Anita Taylor and M.J. Hardman observed that the dominant language appears to dismiss concepts and values that are significant to women but not to men. [8] In everyday social life, man-made language can be heard echoing off of the recipients' eardrums. For instance, women and men that are of the same social rank are usually addressed by asymmetrical usages of first and last name (women are usually called by first name while men are by the last name); [9] or associations of certain words with women are formed to maintain the social stereotype (sewing, cooking, house chores, etc.). [10]

In modern society, communication in virtual communities have contributed to the formation of relationships.

"Before a woman can write exactly as she wishes to write, she has many difficulties to face. To begin with, there is a technical difficulty- so simple, apparently, in reality, so baffling,- that the very form of the sentence does not fit her. It is a sentence made by men," said Virginia Woolf. [11]

Key concepts

Mutedness

Mutedness occurs when individuals of a subordinate group struggle to fairly enunciate their thought processes, without the external pressure to assimilate to the dominant group's established language. [12] Consequently, the loss of autonomy could lead to feeling overlooked, muffled, and invisible. [12] As gender communication scholar Cheris Kramarae states, social interaction and communication create the current language structure. Since the latter was mainly built by men, men have an advantage over women. [6]

As Cowan points out, "'mutedness' does not refer to the absence of voice but to a kind of distortion where subordinate voices…are allowed to speak but only in the confines of the dominant communication system." [13]

Muted group

The muted group or subordinated group is relative to the dominant group. The premise of MGT is that members of the marginalized group(s) would mute themselves without coercion, which is based on the fact that the silencing of muted group(s) is a socially shared phenomenon. [14] According to Gerdrin, muting or silencing is a social phenomenon based on the tacit understanding that within a society there are dominant and non-dominant groups. [15] Thus, the muting process presupposes a collective understanding of who is in power and who is not. [15] The discrepancies in power result in the "oppressor" and "the oppressed." Kramarae points out that the muted group as "the oppressed" are people who don't have a "public recognized vocabulary" to express their experience. [12] Their failure to articulate their ideas lead to their doubt about "the validity of their experience" and "the legitimacy of their feelings." [12] Kramarae also addresses that gender, race, and class hierarchies, are factors where muted groups are supported by "political, educational, religious, legal, and media systems." [12] Muted groups' lack of power usually keeps them at the margin of society.

The "Muting" Process

Muting Methods

Several scholars have researched and studied how the "muting" process occurs. According to West and Turner (2019), there are four methods that can cause muting: ridicule, ritual, control and harassment. [1] A central factor that contributes to these silencing methods is the trivialization of the lexicon and speech patterns that is often used to describe women's activities. [16]

Graphic highlights the ways marginalized groups are silenced. Screen Shot 2015-11-21 at 11.27.28 PM.png
Graphic highlights the ways marginalized groups are silenced.

Ridicule

Houston and Kramarae postulate that ridicule has muted women, such as trivializing their opinions, ideas, concerns and censoring women's voices. [16] According to their research, women can be ridiculed in the health care system, family hierarchies, educational policies and their bodies have been used as props in political debates. [17]

Ritual

Kramarae reasoned that women's voices can be censored by social rituals in institutions that embrace women's subservience. A typical example is wedding ceremony. [7]

Control

Scholars pointed out that many social decisions are controlled by men, including history book contents, mainstream media, communication practices, etc. [18] Men's tactical method to interrupt particularly women during a conversation is a frequently used controlling form. [19]

Harassment

In many public spaces, harassment can occur on the street, workplace, classrooms and even in digital contexts. It usually would be naturalized by men, and women's experiences and concerns about harassment would be ignored or despised in the context. [20]

Other than verbal communications mentioned above, nonverbal cues are also situated in the “muting” process such as demeanor, distribution of space, touch, eye contact, and visibility. [21]

Strategies of Resistance

According to Houston & Kramarae (1991) and Ezster Hargittai & Aaron Shaw (2015), the implementation of the following strategies can mitigate experiences in the "muting" process:

Kramarae's Three Assumptions

According to Cheris Kramarae, MGT makes three assumptions :

Assumption #1

The different experiences caused by the division of labor result in the different perceptions that women and men hold towards the world

Kramarae believes that women integrating men's language into their everyday lives is a disadvantage because women and men are vastly different and perceive the world differently. [7] This stems from the distinction between the meanings of the words "sex" and "gender." She reasons that communication between men and women is not on a balanced level because language is invented by men, ultimately permitting them to take charge. [6] With the integration of  Symbolic Interactionism Theory, it demonstrates that "the extent of knowing is the extent of naming." [1] When applied to MGT, women's voices are muffled because men are the namers.

Assumption #2

Women find it difficult to articulate their ideasin comparison to men's dominant experiences

Kramarae argues that English is a "[hu]man-made language" and that it "embodies the perspectives of the masculine more than the feminine," while supporting "the perceptions of white middle-class males." [23] Kramarae also explains that men's control over language has produced an abundance of derogatory words for women and their speech patterns. [16] Some of these include names such as "slut," "whore," and "easy lay," along with speech patterns such as "gossiping," "whining," and "bitching." [16] When analyzing words connoting promiscuity, there are fewer male-specific terms. Some existing names are praised in a sexually acceptable manner such as "stud," "player," and "pimp" (p. 465). Kramarae suggests the vulgar terms targeted toward women creates a distorted social construct that situates women in a disadvantageous position. [7] She believes that "words constantly ignored may eventually come to be unspoken and perhaps even unthought." This can lead women to doubt themselves from speaking up and allow men to sit on the pedestal. [1]

Assumption #3

Women have toendure a translation process when speaking to participate in social life

Kramarae states that women need to choose their words carefully in public. According to Kramarae, this is because "what women want to say and can say best cannot be said easily because the language template is not of their own making." [1] Another example of the male-dominated language Kramarae discusses is in the public speaking arena where women frequently infuse sports and war analogies to conversate with their male audiences. [24] In historical retrospect, prominent authors, theorists, politicians, news anchors and scientists have long dominated the market. Their prominence permits them to hand down the "facts" about society that women should know to be true. [24] Kramarae also believes that "males have more difficulty than females in understanding what members of the other gender mean." [1] Feminist scholar Dale Spender supports the idea that language, and society in general, is traditionally male-centric: "Masculinity is the unmarked form: the assumption is that the world is male unless proven otherwise. Femininity is the marked form: it is the proof of otherwise." [25] If masculinity, and their socially constructed language, are considered as unmarked forms, then any marked form must be analyzed through a translation process to actively communicate with others. [25]

Applications

Contexts

Marginalized groups in a given culture or society experience the muting process in social contexts including but not limited to:

Mass Media

Carol Stone, a CBE award-winning journalist, discusses the importance of equitable reporting at the Justina Mutale Foundation's "Making the Media Female" event in London. Justina Mutale Foundation "Making the Media Female".jpg
Carol Stone, a CBE award-winning journalist, discusses the importance of equitable reporting at the Justina Mutale Foundation's "Making the Media Female" event in London.

According to Kramarae, women have been prevented from having stage presence on mass media, misrepresented in history and locked out of the editorial publishing business until 1970. [26] The predominance of male gatekeepers, who are defined as editors and other arbiters of a culture, determine which books, essays, poetry, plays, film scripts, etc. will appear in the mass media. [26] Similarly, Pamela Creedon argues that in the mid-1970s there was an increase of women in the male-dominated profession of journalism. [27]

In "The Status of Women in the U.S. Media 2014," The Women's Media Centre researchers explore the current status of women in the mass media industry. [28] The report compiles 27,000 pieces of content among "20 of the most widely circulated, read, and viewed, and listened TV networks, newspapers, news wires, and online news in the United States." [28] The results show that women (36.1%) are significantly out-numbered by men (63.4%). Several studies show that while men mainly report on "hard" news, women are often relegated to cover "soft" news that mutes and prevents them from participating in contexts crucial to civil discourse. [29] [30]

Although the Women's Media Centre study is U.S.-centric, marginalized groups are muted in other country's media landscapes. For example, Aparna Hebbani and Charise-Rose Wills explored how Muslim women have been muted in the Australian mass media sphere. [31] Their study showed that women that wear a hijab or burqa are inaccurately and negatively connoted in Australian mass media. [31] According to the authors, Muslim women represent a muted group who cannot entirely incorporate their experiences, views, and perspectives in Australian media. [31] Thus, there is a social hierarchy that is privileging certain groups via Australian mass media. [31] Their findings reveal that Muslim women are attempting to find their cultural space in this media landscape by engaging and interacting with producers, directors and news anchors behind Australian mass media to negotiate their muted position. [31]

Social Rituals

Application in social rituals- A father gives his daughter away at the wedding ceremony. Documentary-wedding-photographers-melbourne.jpg
Application in social rituals- A father gives his daughter away at the wedding ceremony.

Muting occurs in social rituals. Kramarae suggests that many elements within wedding ceremonies situate women in a silenced position. [16] For example, the fact that the father of the bride "gives her away" to the groom, the bride is placed to the left of the minister which is considered less privileged than the groom, the groom announces his vows first and the groom is asked to kiss the bride, are all factors that contribute to women's subordination to men. [16]

There are some conventional stereotypes attached to men and women in society when they deviate from social norms, resulting in "negative feedback." [16] An example of societal criticism would be women down on one knee proposing marriage to men. For instance, when they attempt to emulate their male counterparts' behavior, they are "discriminated" and "discouraged." [32]

As Catharine MacKinnon (one of the leading voices in the feminist legal movement ) suggests, the law perceives women similarly as men perceive women. [33] Likewise to socially constructed language, the legal system has been created, defined, and interpreted mostly by men. [33] In the context of unequal power relations between men and women, MacKinnon proposes new standards to define and evaluate sexual harassment and sex-related issues considered as the consequence of unwanted impositions of sexual requirements. [34] Finley argues that there has been a recent interest in feminist jurisprudence and legal scholarship inspired by the law's failure to see that despite the legal removal of barriers, sexes are not socially equal. [35]

The Workplace

In 1940s America, women flooded the workplace while men were at war. [32] After wars fizzled out, society did not encourage women's participation in operating production lines in the workplace. Instead, male dominance was embraced. [32]

The "organizational structure" is maintained by men's socially constructed language. Western patriarchal cultures tend to privilege masculine styles of language while marginalizing feminine styles. [32] In the workplace, organizational communication is implemented to help fulfill an employee's work responsibilities. However, many organization goals are met by the usage of "male-preferential" language that focus on terms such as "economic gain" and "performance improved." [32] Women are typically excluded and have to use "male preferential" language to attain success. [32]

For instance, women's voices tend to be muted within emails in organizations. [36] Men's email language is characterized by opinions, facts, assertiveness. In contrast, women's email language consists of revealing personal information, references to emotion and using many adjectives. [36]

Additionally, female victims who face sexual harassment by the dominant group are subject to being muted in the workplace. [37] In a male-dominated workplace, women are perceived to be "the verbal minority." [38] Organizations rarely encourage sexual harassment to be discussed openly and call for confidentiality when dealing with complaints. [37] Furthermore, women rarely go through formal channels of reporting sexual harassment for a number of reasons including: "expecting their complaint to be ignored or trivialized by the male dominant group, fear of not being protected from retaliation, worry that the male dominated hierarchy will 'team up' against them, or that their time will be wasted due to the organization's ineffective sexual harassment policy." [39] Subordinate groups are trusted less than white men in the workplace. [40]

Some researchers suggest to take an action-research approach to attain organizational gender equity by addressing "entrenched systems of power." [41] They believe that "collaboration as both a principle and as a strategy is central in bringing about generative and organizational change." Action research involves researchers engaging as active participants in the study, continuously refining key variables and constantly implementing and evaluating new data. [41]

Politics

Independent parties have emerged since World War II to offer alternative candidates for election. However, most of these parties operate only in "circumscribed regions or with very narrow platforms." [42] Prentice studied the impact of the third party, i.e., candidates from non-major parties, in public debate. [42] He discovered that there have been few studies about third parties by 2003 and even though third-party candidates are involved in public campaign debates, they remain inarticulate and ignored due to the judgment by "standard of the political rhetoric and worldview of the major parties." [42]

Prentice points out that major parties usually interfere with the free expression of third parties through three ways: "ignoring their claims, appearing confused (verbally or nonverbally) by the claims, or actively attacking the claims made." [42] He also noticed that the debate questions are structured in a way that reflects major parties' worldviews, which results in third party's mutedness. [42] In order to participate and articulate their own worldview, third-party candidates have to transform their ideas to match the major parties' models through emphasizing the agreements with the majority rather than the differences and sometimes may lead them to make statements that can be misinterpreted. [42]

In an electoral system where career continuity is valued, women candidates are placed at a disadvantaged position competing with their male opponents. [43] Stereotypical opinions like women as default caretakers of domestic business impose disadvantages on women, as they are thought to be incapable of being consistent with their work for family reasons. [43] Disadvantages imposed by deep-rooted stereotypes and how electoral rules orient voters’ predisposition reduce women's chance of success and render women “muted” in the political atmosphere. [43]

Education

Application in education - "Women's studies" Womens Studies (8407729802).jpg
Application in education - "Women's studies"

The classroom can perpetually mute women. Women's education in the United States has progressed over the years, but academia is still male-dominated. Kramarae has raised several suggestions for more inclusive educational environments, such as embedding "women's humor," "speechlessness," and ways to tackle "abusive language." [44] Branching more diverse language systems in academia can prevent the continual muting of marginalized groups.

In the classroom, men and women use language to communicate in distinct mannerisms with other members of their gender. Women tend to bond with each other through the descriptive process of their problems, while men bond with each other using "playful insults" and "put downs." [45] In classroom discussions, men tend to believe that they have to dominate the class discussion while women are typically muted in their seats. [45]

Allyson Jule, Dean of the Faculty of Education, Community, and Health Development at the University of Fraser Valley in British Columbia, Canada noted that in gendered classroom discourse, "One of the themes running through much feminist pedagogical work is that classrooms can be sites of struggle— struggle to belong, struggle to matter, struggle to learn, struggle to speak aloud, and struggle to participate—and often passive struggles on the part of many girls." [46]

Houston argues that to properly create a positive educational reform for students, it can be helpful to update the curriculum and emphasize the importance of "woman-centered communication" education. [44] Women's Studies (WS) has evolved and grown over the years in higher education. In modern society, there is a need for seasoned faculty to be on initiatives such as WS programs, African American Programs and other programs centralized on sharing marginalized groups' stories. [44]

Beyond the classroom, rape culture influences sexual violence on college campuses. [47] Rape myths, men's athletics, and fraternity culture actively mute female students from speaking out, and eventually affects college administrators and students. [47] Every two minutes in the United States, someone is raped, and the chances of being that victim are four times greater for a college female student than for any other age group. [48]

Theology

In the 1970s, feminists rejected all religions. [49] This pertinent issue has been addressed in many well-known feminist texts, such as Kate Millett's Sexual Politics and Andrea Dworkin's Right-Wing Women, [50] [49] the second-wave feminism considered religion as an anti-women force founded by men to subordinate women. According to Sheila Jeffreys, “religion founds men's authority over women and makes resistance difficult, because fear of divine punishment keeps women in their place.” [49]

Other Muted Elements

According to MGT, marginalized groups' voices are muted because the individuals' factors do not synchronize with the standards set by dominant groups. These elements include but are not limited to:

Language

Application in language- A Feminist Dictionary The Ladies' Dictionary 1694 (22163418033).jpg
Application in language- A Feminist Dictionary

According to Kissack, male-dominated language has reigned avenues of communication. In corporate organizations, women are expected to use "female preferential" to mingle with their female peers. [32] The primary difference between the two is "male-preferential" language consists of details such as opinions and facts whereas "female-preferential" language is made up of personal details, emotions reflected in the conversations, and a high usage of adjectives. [32] Moreover, according to socialist historian Sheila Rowbotham, language is considered to be a tool manipulated by superior people of social rank to conserve their status quo. [51]

Muted group theory has "recognized that women's voices are muted in Western society so that their experiences are not fully represented in language and has argued that women's experiences merit linguistic recognition." [38] Kramarae states that to change muted group status we also need to change dictionaries. Traditional dictionaries rely on the majority of their information from male literary sources. These male sources have the power to exclude significant words to women or created by women. [38] Expanding on this idea, Kramarae and Paula Treichler created A Feminist Dictionary with words they believed Merriam-Webster defined on male ideas. For example, the word "Cuckold" is defined as "the husband of an unfaithful wife" in Merriam Webster. [38] However, there is no term for a wife who has an unfaithful husband. She is simply called a wife. Another example Kramarae defined was the word "doll." She defined "doll" as "a toy playmate given to, or made by children." Some adult males continue their childhood by labeling adult female companions "dolls." [38] The feminist dictionary includes up to 2,500 words to empower women's linguistic ability and ultimately change their muted status. [52] Long argues that although socially constructed diction shapes society, she argues that women can bravely take up physical and political space to air their ideas. [53]

Application in LGBT study - "Older LGBT Group celebrating Pride" in Trafalgar Square, London. Pride London 2011 - 024.jpg
Application in LGBT study - "Older LGBT Group celebrating Pride" in Trafalgar Square, London.

Sexuality

LGBT groups are considered marginalized and muted in our society. [54] The dominant groups who "hold privileged positions within society" have developed social norms that marginalize LGBT groups. [55] Although LGBT individuals do not necessarily share the same identity, they share similar experiences of being marginalized by the dominant groups.

LGBT individuals who have a mixed racial background are also cast under muted group theory. [56] For instance, a writing and rhetoric student at Florida International University, a public Hispanic-serving institution said, "I'm half Latin and half Caucasian. I look more Caucasian than Latin. That in itself allows me certain rights and to be heard much louder than my Latino brethren. When people find out I'm gay when I'm trying to have my voice heard about anything related to politics or human rights, I am muted a bit." [56]

As Gross notes, "For many oppressed groups the experience of commonality is largely the commonality of their difference from, and oppression by, the dominant culture." [57] LGBT groups must adopt certain communication strategies to match the social norms to guarantee assimilation within the dominant culture. [58]

Race

Application in race - "the right to be heard" 1. The right to be heard- People claiming their right to a better life (9065195747).jpg
Application in race - "the right to be heard"

Gloria Ladson-Billings believes that "stories provide the necessary context for understanding, feeling, and interpreting" the voices of people of color who are muted within the dominant culture. [59] Critical race theorists try to bring the marginalized group's viewpoint to the forefront through an encouragement of "naming one's own reality." [59] Delgado addresses three reasons for "naming one's own reality" in legal discourse: "1) much of 'reality' is socially constructed; 2) stories provide members of outgroups a vehicle for psychic self-preservation; and 3) the exchange of stories from teller to listener can help overcome ethnocentrism and the dysconscious drive or need to view the world in one way." [60]

In traditional pedagogical practices in the United States' educational institutions, critical race theorists argue that the official school curriculum is designed to maintain a "White supremacist master script." [60] As Swartz contends, master scripting sets the standard knowledge for students, which legitimizes "dominant, white, upper-class, male voices" and mutes people of color's perspectives. [60]

When pedagogies involve the Latinx community, they are often framed by a "public and institutional rhetoric of cultural deficiency," further discouraging Latinx students from sharing their cultural experiences. [61] The muted group theory displays how others interpret marginalized groups and can silence Hispanic immigrants. [62]

The voices from other non-dominant groups are tampered, mastered and can only be heard through reshaping and translation to meet the dominant standard. [63] Therefore, Lasdon-Billing argues that the curriculum should be race-neutral or colorblind, present people of color, and "presume a homogenized 'we' in a celebration of diversity." [59]

Age

Ageism leads to more mature age groups being muted in American society. In particular, the elderly are ignored and marginalized. [64]

In "Muted lives: Older battered women", Carol Seaver discusses how sexist and ageist factors mute older women. [64] She argues that this group of domestic abuse survivors faces a specific set of difficulties including being "silenced by ageist assumptions about them as too resistant and hopeless to change or made invisible by the notion that very frail elders are the only victims of elder abuse." [64] In "Muted groups in health communication policy and practice: The case of older adults in rural and frontier areas", Deborah Ballard-Reisch examines how and why elderly populations in the rural areas of Nevada and Kansas are considered muted health communication groups. Ageism intertwines with other muted elements that contribute to the loss of autonomy for the elderly. [65]

According to Seaver and Ballard-Reisch's works, stereotypes can mute aging populations, such as the idea that the elderly are resistant to change. [65]

Ageism also intersects with heterosexism when examining how aging LGBT community members are muted. Scholar Maria T. Brown writes, "The exclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) elders from queer and gerontological theories has resulted in the silencing of LGBT older adults and their experiences." [66] Brown claims that the silencing is a "rhetorical move" that excludes the elderly from queer theory and queerness from the field gerontology. [66] Her case study is an example of how elderly and queer identities intersect in muted group theory.

In popular culture, ageism persists. Calasanti stated that seniors receive an influx of unsolicited brochures and spam in their email inboxes that market methods to stop aging. [67] The growing "anti-aging industry" sells the luxurious elderly woman as a model for womanhood. In turn, this strategic practice mutes older women who attempt to speak out about the money-grabbing tactic. [67]

Disability

Marcel Calvez argues that, "What makes a social group muted is that claims of its members to participate into social life are discounted and that they have internalised the idea that they are not entitled to raise their voice." [68] By this logic, he says that those with intellectual disabilities are muted. Calvez's study examines the experiences of those with intellectual disabilities, with special attention to the fact these groups are often marginalized and silenced. [68]

Differences in social classes also can contribute to diversified school experiences for students with disabilities. [69] Woodcock and Hitches state that increased stigmatization toward disadvantaged students' academic performances can be stereotyped as a result of their health condition rather than "an outcome of multiple marginalized identities." [69]

Many disabled groups are silenced by the dominant abled group that knowingly or unknowingly exclude them. The means of muting, ridicule, ritual, control, and harassment can all apply to disabled groups. [64] Ableist language, such as use of the pejorative term "retard," can be used to ridicule disabled groups. [64] However, disabled groups and abled allies can raise awareness about pejoratives' harm in their communities.

Extension

Although the muted group theory has been mainly developed as a feminist theory, it can also be applied to other silenced groups in society. [70]

Mark Orbe's Perspective

Mark Orbe, a communication theorist, has suggested that in the U.S. the dominant group consists of white, heterosexual, middle-class, males. [71] Thus, groups that distinguish themselves from the dominant one in terms of race, age, gender, sexual orientation, and economic status can potentially be silenced or muted. [71]

Interethnic Communication

In "African-American communication research: Toward a deeper understanding of interethnic communication" (1995) and "Constructing co-cultural theory: An explication of culture, power, and communication" (1998), Orbe fleshed out two important extensions of muted group theory:

  • Muting can be applied to many cultural groups. Orbe stated that research performed by the dominant white European culture has created a view of African-American communication "which promotes the illusion that all African-Americans, regardless of gender, age, class, or sexual orientation, communicate in a similar manner." [71]
  • There are several ways in which members of a muted group can face their position within the dominant culture. Orbe identified 26 different ways that members of muted groups face the structures and messages imposed by dominant groups. [71] For example, individuals can choose to (1) emphasize commonalities and downplay cultural differences, (2) educate others about norms of the muted group, and (3) avoid members of the dominant group. Orbe also suggests that individuals choose one of the 26 different ways based on previous experiences, context, abilities, perceived costs and rewards. [72]

A muted group theory framework exists within any society that includes asymmetrical power relationships. Kramarae's research on women and Orbe's work on African American men utilize this framework to dissect the communicative experiences of non dominant, or co-cultural, group members. [72] Although Kramarae focuses on women's muted voices, she also opens the door to the application of muted group theory to issues beyond gender differences. Orbe not only applies this theoretical framework to a different muted group, i.e. African-Americans, but also contributes by assessing "how individual and small collectives work together to negotiate their muted group status." [73] [74]

Co-cultural Communication

Orbe regards "interactions among underrepresented and dominant group members" as co-cultural communication. [73] [74] He argues that there are three preferred outcomes in the co-cultural communication process: assimilation (e.g., becoming integrated into mainstream culture), accommodation (gaining acceptance and space in a society and achieving cultural pluralism without hierarchy), or separation (maintaining a culturally distinct identity in intercultural interactions)." [72] He also notes three communication approaches: nonassertive (when individuals are constrained and nonconfrontational, putting the needs of others first to avoid conflicts), assertive (when individuals express feelings, ideas, and rights in ways that consider the needs of themselves and others), or aggressive (when individuals express feelings, ideas, and rights in ways that ignore the needs of others). [72] The different combinations of the three preferred outcomes and three communication approaches result in nine communication orientations. [72]

Further, although various groups can be considered as muted within society, silenced and dominant groups can also exist within any group. [72] For example, Anita Taylor and M. J. Hardman posit that feminist movements can also present dominant subgroups that mute other groups within the same movement. Thus, members within oppressed groups can have diverse opinions and one can become dominant and further mute the others. [75]

Radhika Chopra's Perspective

Most researchers would consider men as the dominant group in MGT. However, scholars like Radhika Chopra asserted that men can also be part of a muted group when considering the nurturing fathers issue. [76] Chopra pointed out that some discourse of mothering devalued father's presence as “an absence, in contrast with the hands-on vital involvement of the mother." [76] According to Chopra's opinion, in the early American colonial period, fathers were quite involved in the nurturance of kids. [76] Therefore, the sex and gender distinction should be taken into consideration when we talk about MGT. He argued that sex is a biological category where people are placed into male and female, whereas gender is more like a social category based on people's behaviors and identity of masculinity and femininity. [77]

In Chopra's "Invisible Men: Masculinity, Sexuality, and Male Domestic Labor", he discusses his concept of "gendering the veil" where Sirisha Indukuri male domestic workers must be perceived as a system that frames bodily styles, speech forms and the nonverbal language of gestures. [78] He argues that men who are in the domestic labor system should not be muted based on their worksite. [78]

"Employers congratulate themselves on servants who have successfully learned their place and only then extend to them the 'right' to be part of the family’s ritual calendar, though a worker’s participation is initiated by the employer, not the worker. The move toward being part of the family depends on learning the rules of exclusion, permission, and prohibition." [78]

Critiques

Edwin Ardener perceived that muted group theory had a pragmatic and analytical potentials. [79] Ardener constantly stated that muted group theory consisted of both women and men's lived experiences in his social anthropological studies. [79] He drew on his personal experience as a "sensitive boy" in an all-boys London secondary school. His constrained voice in a classroom with dominant young speakers paved way for the development of muted group theory. [79]

Another prominent criticism of muted group theory is that it assumes all men or women are essentially same in their own groups. The difference is between men and women, not among men or women. Therefore, both groups are misunderstood to some extent. [80]

In addition, Deborah Tannen, the theorist that created Genderlect Theory, criticizes feminist scholars like Kramarae for assuming that men are trying to control women. [81] Tannen acknowledges that differences in male and female communication styles sometimes lead to imbalances of power. She added that "bad feelings and imputation of bad motives or bad character can come about when there was no intention to dominate or to wield power." [81] Kramerae believes that men belittle and ignore women whenever they speak out against being muted. [82] Both theorists believe muting is involved, but they see it from different standpoints.

Additionally, Carol Gilligan presented another reason concerning why women and men perceive “reality” differently. She posited that, instead of men presumably being the dominant sources of languages and voices, it is because women and men have different means of formulating their sense of “self.” [83] According to Gilligan, women's moral domain is more care-based, which means women perceive the reality based on the relations with others, whereas men forge their identity through separation, focusing on self-assessment and individual achievement. [83] These two approaches eventually lead women and men to construct different understandings of integrity and different senses of reality. [84]

See also

Related Research Articles

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as anthropology and sociology, communication, media studies, psychoanalysis, political theory, home economics, literature, education, and philosophy.

Feminist legal theory, also known as feminist jurisprudence, is based on the belief that the law has been fundamental in women's historical subordination. Feminist jurisprudence the philosophy of law is based on the political, economic, and social inequality of the sexes and feminist legal theory is the encompassment of law and theory connected. The project of feminist legal theory is twofold. First, feminist jurisprudence seeks to explain ways in which the law played a role in women's subordinate status. Feminist legal theory was directly created to recognize and combat the legal system built primarily by the and for male intentions, often forgetting important components and experiences women and marginalized communities face. The law perpetuates a male valued system at the expense of female values. Through making sure all people have access to participate in legal systems as professionals to combating cases in constitutional and discriminatory law, feminist legal theory is utilized for it all.

Standpoint theory, also known as standpoint epistemology, is a foundational framework in feminist social theory that examines how individuals' unique perspectives, shaped by their social and political experiences, influence their understanding of the world. Standpoint theory proposes that authority is rooted in individuals' personal knowledge and perspectives and the power that such authority exerts.

Standpoint feminism is a theory that feminist social science should be practiced from the standpoint of women or particular groups of women, as some scholars say that they are better equipped to understand some aspects of the world. A feminist or women's standpoint epistemology proposes to make women's experiences the point of departure, in addition to, and sometimes instead of men's.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sociology of gender</span> Branch of the discipline of sociology

Sociology of gender is a subfield of sociology. As one of the most important social structures is status. One of the most important statuses an individual claims is gender. Public discourse and the academic literature generally use the term gender for the perceived or projected (self-identified) masculinity or femininity of a person.

Feminist anthropology is a four-field approach to anthropology that seeks to transform research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge, using insights from feminist theory. Simultaneously, feminist anthropology challenges essentialist feminist theories developed in Europe and America. While feminists practiced cultural anthropology since its inception, it was not until the 1970s that feminist anthropology was formally recognized as a subdiscipline of anthropology. Since then, it has developed its own subsection of the American Anthropological Association – the Association for Feminist Anthropology – and its own publication, Feminist Anthropology. Their former journal Voices is now defunct.

In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity is part of R. W. Connell's gender order theory, which recognizes multiple masculinities that vary across time, society, culture, and the individual. Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men's dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of the common male population and women, and other marginalized ways of being a man. Conceptually, hegemonic masculinity proposes to explain how and why men maintain dominant social roles over women, and other gender identities, which are perceived as "feminine" in a given society.

Research into the many possible relationships, intersections and tensions between language and gender is diverse. It crosses disciplinary boundaries, and, as a bare minimum, could be said to encompass work notionally housed within applied linguistics, linguistic anthropology, conversation analysis, cultural studies, feminist media studies, feminist psychology, gender studies, interactional sociolinguistics, linguistics, mediated stylistics, sociolinguistics, and feminist language reform and media studies.

Feminist theory in composition studies examines how gender, language, and cultural studies affect the teaching and practice of writing. It challenges the traditional assumptions and methods of composition studies and proposes alternative approaches that are informed by feminist perspectives. Feminist theory in composition studies covers a range of topics, such as the history and development of women's writing, the role of gender in rhetorical situations, the representation and identity of writers, and the pedagogical implications of feminist theory for writing instruction. Feminist theory in composition studies also explores how writing can be used as a tool for empowerment, resistance, and social change. Feminist theory in composition studies emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a response to the male-dominated field of composition and rhetoric. It has been influenced by various feminist movements and disciplines, such as second-wave feminism, poststructuralism, psychoanalysis, critical race theory, and queer theory. Feminist theory in composition studies has contributed to the revision of traditional rhetorical concepts, the recognition of diverse voices and genres, the promotion of collaborative and ethical communication, and the integration of personal and political issues in writing.

LGBTQ linguistics is the study of language as used by members of LGBTQ communities. Related or synonymous terms include lavender linguistics, advanced by William Leap in the 1990s, which "encompass[es] a wide range of everyday language practices" in LGBTQ communities, and queer linguistics, which refers to the linguistic analysis concerning the effect of heteronormativity on expressing sexual identity through language. The former term derives from the longtime association of the color lavender with LGBTQ communities. "Language", in this context, may refer to any aspect of spoken or written linguistic practices, including speech patterns and pronunciation, use of certain vocabulary, and, in a few cases, an elaborate alternative lexicon such as Polari.

Edwin Ardener (1927–1987) was a British social anthropologist and academic. He was also noted for his contributions to the study of history. Within anthropology, some of his most important contributions were to the study of gender, as in his 1975 work in which he described women as "muted" in social discourse.

Gender essentialism is a theory which attributes distinct, intrinsic qualities to women and men. Based in essentialism, it holds that there are certain universal, innate, biologically based features of gender that are at the root of many of the group differences observed in the behavior of men and women.

Co-cultural communication theory was built upon the frameworks of muted group theory and standpoint theory. The cornerstone of co-cultural communication theory is muted group theory as proposed in the mid 1970s by Shirley and Edwin Ardener. The Ardeners were cultural anthropologists who made the observation that most other cultural anthropologists practicing ethnography in the field were talking only to the leaders of the cultures, who were by and large adult males. The researchers would then use this data to represent the culture as a whole, leaving out the perspectives of women, children and other groups made voiceless by the cultural hierarchy. The Ardeners maintained that groups which function at the top of the society hierarchy determine to a great extent the dominant communication system of the entire society. Ardener's 1975 muted group theory also posited that dominant group members formulate a "communication system that support their perception of the world and conceptualized it as the appropriate language for the rest of society".

Cultural contracts refer to the degree that cultural values are exchanged between groups. They are the agreements made between two groups of people regarding how they will modify their identities in unison. Cultural contract theory investigates how identities shift and are negotiated through cross-cultural interaction. It extends identity negotiation theory and uncertainty reduction theory by focusing defining the negotiation experience from the perspective of minority groups when dealing with cultural norms set by the majority groups. Relationally coordinating with others is the main objective of a cultural contract. The three fundamental premises of the cultural contracts theory are that identities are contractual, continually transferred, and requirement for validation.

Social privilege is an advantage or entitlement that benefits individuals belonging to certain groups, often to the detriment of others. Privileged groups can be advantaged based on social class, wealth, education, caste, age, height, skin color, physical fitness, nationality, geographic location, cultural differences, ethnic or racial category, gender, gender identity, neurodiversity, physical disability, sexual orientation, religion, and other differentiating factors. Individuals can be privileged in one area, such as education, and not privileged in another area, such as health. The amount of privilege any individual has may change over time, such as when a person becomes disabled, or when a child becomes a young adult.

Sexism in video gaming is prejudiced behavior or discrimination based on sex or gender as experienced by people who play and create video games, primarily women. This may manifest as sexual harassment or in the way genders are represented in games, such as when characters are presented according to gender-related tropes and stereotypes.

A Feminist Dictionary is an alternative dictionary written by Cheris Kramarae and Paula A. Treichler, with assistance from Ann Russo, originally published by Pandora Press in 1985.

In feminist theory, heteropatriarchy or cisheteropatriarchy, is a social construct where (primarily) cisgender and heterosexual males have authority over other cisgender males, females, and people with other sexual orientations and gender identities. It is a term that emphasizes that discrimination against women and LGBT people is derived from the same sexist social principle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cheris Kramarae</span> American feminist scholar

Cheris Kramarae is a scholar in the area of women's studies and communication, with her research primarily focusing on gender, language and communication, technology, and education. She is mostly known for her contributions to muted group theory, as well as A Feminist Dictionary, in which she was a co-author.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist rhetoric</span> Practice of rhetoric

Feminist rhetoric emphasizes the narratives of all demographics, including women and other marginalized groups, into the consideration or practice of rhetoric. Feminist rhetoric does not focus exclusively on the rhetoric of women or feminists but instead prioritizes the feminist principles of inclusivity, community, and equality over the classic, patriarchal model of persuasion that ultimately separates people from their own experience. Seen as the act of producing or the study of feminist discourses, feminist rhetoric emphasizes and supports the lived experiences and histories of all human beings in all manner of experiences. It also redefines traditional delivery sites to include non-traditional locations such as demonstrations, letter writing, and digital processes, and alternative practices such as rhetorical listening and productive silence. In her book, Rhetorical Feminism and This Thing Called Hope (2018), Cheryl Glenn describes rhetorical feminism as, "a set of tactics that multiplies rhetorical opportunities in terms of who counts as a rhetor, who can inhabit an audience, and what those audiences can do." Rhetorical feminism is a strategy that counters traditional forms of rhetoric, favoring dialogue over monologue and seeking to redefine the way audiences view rhetorical appeals.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 West, Richard; Turner, Lynn (2018). Introducing communication theory : analysis and application (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN   9781259870323.
  2. 1 2 3 Ardener, Shirley (2005). "Ardener's 'Muted Groups': The genesis of an idea and its praxis". Women and Language. 28 (2): 50–54, 72. ProQuest   198819388.
  3. ↑ Ardener, Shirley G. (September 1973). "Sexual Insult and Female Militancy". Man. 8 (3): 422–440. doi:10.2307/2800319. JSTOR   2800319.
  4. 1 2 3 Korn, J. U. (2016). Genderless’ online discourse in the 1970s: muted group theory in early social computing. Morgan & Claypool Publishers, New York, NY, 213-230.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Ardener, Edwin, & Chapman, Malcolm. (2007). The voice of prophecy and other essays. New York: Berghahn Books.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Kramer, Cheris; Thorne, Barrie; Henley, Nancy (April 1978). "Perspectives on Language and Communication". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 3 (3): 638–651. doi:10.1086/493507. S2CID 144168018
  7. 1 2 3 4 Kramarae, Cheris (1981). Women and men speaking: Frameworks for analysis. Newbury House Publishers. Rowley, MA: Print.
  8. ↑ Taylor, A.; Hardman, M. J. (2000). "Introduction: The meaning of voice.". Hearing many voices. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. pp. 1–27.
  9. ↑ Rosaldo, Michelle Z. (April 1977). "Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley, eds., Sex and language Difference and dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1975. Pp. xii–311". Language in Society. 6(1): 110–113. doi:10.1017/S0047404500004930. S2CID 143648246.
  10. ↑ Faires Conklin, Nancy. "Toward a Feminist Analysis of Linguistic Behavior". The University of Michigan Papers in Women's Studies. 1(1): 51–73. hdl:2027/spo.acp0359.0001.001:05
  11. ↑ Gannon-Leary, P. & Wall, C. (1999). A sentence made by men. The European Journal of Women's Studies. 6, 21-29. http://www.brown.uk.com/brownlibrary/EJWS.htm
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Griffin, Emory A (2011). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-353430-5
  13. ↑ Cowan, R. (May, 2007). Muted group theory: Providing answers and raising questions concerning workplace bullying. Conference Papers -- National Communication Association. Chicago, IL.
  14. ↑ Sheriff, Robin E. (2000). "Exposing Silence as Cultural Censorship: A Brazilian Case". American Anthropologist. 102 (1): 114–132. doi:10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.114. ISSN 1548-1433
  15. 1 2 Gendrin, D. M. Homeless women's inner voices: Friends or foes?, in Hearing many voices. Hampton Press.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Houston, Marsha; Kramarae, Cheris (October 1991). "Speaking from Silence: Methods of Silencing and of Resistance". Discourse & Society. 2 (4): 387–399. doi:10.1177/0957926591002004001. S2CID 145782530
  17. ↑ Brann, M.; Mattson, M. (2004). "Reframing communication during gynecological exams: A feminist virtue ethic of care perspective". Gender in applied communication contexts. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 147–168.
  18. ↑ James, D.; Drackich, J. (1993). "Understanding gender differences in amount of talk". In Tannen, D. (ed.). Gender and conversational interaction. Oxford: University Press. pp. 281–312.
  19. ↑ DeFrancisco, Victoria Leto (October 1991). "The Sounds of Silence: How Men Silence Women in Marital Relations". Discourse & Society. 2 (4): 413–423. doi:10.1177/0957926591002004003. ISSN 0957-9265. S2CID 145790027.
  20. ↑ Strine, Mary S. (November 1992). "Understanding "how things work";: Sexual harassment and academic culture". Journal of Applied Communication Research. 20 (4): 391–400. doi:10.1080/00909889209365345. ISSN 0090-9882.
  21. ↑ Henley N, Henley N M. Body politics: Power, sex, and nonverbal communication[M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977.
  22. ↑ Hargittai, Eszter; Shaw, Aaron (2015-04-03). "Mind the skills gap: the role of Internet know-how and gender in differentiated contributions to Wikipedia". Information, Communication & Society. 18 (4): 424–442. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2014.957711. ISSN 1369-118X. S2CID 143468397.
  23. ↑ Littlejohn, S.W., & Foss, K.A. (2011). Theories of human communication, 10th ed. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. P148
  24. 1 2 VanGorp, Ericka (26 January 2016). "Muted Group Theory"
  25. 1 2 Spender, Dale (1990). Man-Made Language. Pandora Press. ISBN   978-0-86358-401-5
  26. 1 2 Kramarae, Cheris. Technology and Women's Voices : Keeping in Touch.
  27. ↑ Creedon, P.; Cramer, J. (2007). Women in Mass Communication. Thousand Oak. pp. 275–283.
  28. 1 2 "The Status of Women in the U.S. Media 2014". Women's Media Center.
  29. ↑ Grabe, Maria Elizabeth; Samson, Lelia (2012). "Sexual Cues Emanating From the Anchorette Chair: Implications for Perceived Professionalism, Fitness for Beat, and Memory for News". Communication Research. 38 (4): 471–496. doi:10.1177/0093650210384986. hdl:2022/14319. S2CID 8968472.
  30. ↑ Engstrom, Erika; Ferri, Anthony J (Fall 2000). "Looking Through a Gendered Lens: Local U.S. Television News Anchors' Perceived Career Barriers". Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. 44(4): 614–634. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4404_6. S2CID 144052614.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 Hebbani, Aparna; Wills, Charise-Rose (2012). "How Muslim women in Australia navigate through media (mis)representations of hijab/burqa". Australian Journal of Communication. 39 (1): 87–100. ProQuest 1508226081.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kissack, Heather (2010). "Muted voices: A critical look at e‐male in organizations". Journal of European Industrial Training. 34(6): 539–551. doi:10.1108/03090591011061211.
  33. 1 2 MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1983). "Feminism, Marxism, Method, and the State: Toward Feminist Jurisprudence". Signs. 8 (4): 635–658. doi:10.1086/494000. JSTOR 3173687. S2CID 145125690.
  34. ↑ MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1979). Sexual Harassment of Working Women . Yale University Press.
  35. ↑ Finley, L. (1988). "The nature of domination and the nature of women: reflections on Feminism Unmodified". Northwestern University Law Review.
  36. 1 2 Janssen, A. and Murachver, T. (2004), “The relationship between gender and topic in gender preferential language use”, Written Communication, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 344‐67.
  37. 1 2 Clair, Robin Patric (June 1993). "The use of framing devices to sequester organizational narratives: Hegemony and harassment". Communication Monographs. 60 (2): 113–136. doi:10.1080/03637759309376304.
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 Wood, Julia T (2005). "Feminist Standpoint Theory and Muted Group Theory: Commonalities and Divergences". Women and Language. 28 (2): 61–64, 72.
  39. ↑ "Toward a Redefinition of Sexual Equality". Harvard Law Review. 95 (2): 487–508. December 1981. doi:10.2307/1340713. JSTOR 1340713.
  40. ↑ Amiot, Catherine E.; Bourhis, Richard Y. (June 2005). "Discrimination between dominant and subordinate groups: The positive-negative asymmetry effect and normative processes". British Journal of Social Psychology. 44 (2): 289–308. doi:10.1348/014466604X17605. PMID 16004650.
  41. 1 2 Coleman, G. and Rippin, A. (2000), “Putting feminist theory to work: collaboration as a means towards organizational change”, Organization, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 573‐87.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Prentice, Carolyn (2005). "Third Party Candidates in Political Debates: Muted Groups Struggling to Express Themselves". Speaker & Gavel. 42 (1): 2.
  43. 1 2 3 Jost, John et al. “The Psychology of Legitimacy: Emerging Perspectives on Ideology, Justice, and Intergroup Relations.” Social justice research 1 Mar. 2004: 93–109. Web.
  44. 1 2 3 Kramarae, Cheris (October 1996). "Centers of change: An introduction to women's own communication programs". Communication Education. 45 (4): 315–321. doi:10.1080/03634529609379061.
  45. 1 2 Tannen, Deborah (February 1992). "How Men and Women Use Language Differently in Their Lives and in the Classroom". The Education Digest. 57 (6): 3. ProQuest   218163503.
  46. ↑ Jule, Allyson (2018-02-03). "All Together Now: Using Conversational Analysis and Muted Group Theory to Understand Gendered Classroom Discourse in a Cameroonian Primary Classroom". African Journal of Teacher Education. 7 (1). doi: 10.21083/ajote.v7i1.3765 . ISSN   1916-7822.
  47. 1 2 Burnett, Ann; Mattern, Jody L.; Herakova, Liliana L.; Kahl, David H.; Tobola, Cloy; Bornsen, Susan E. (2009–2011). "Communicating/Muting Date Rape: A Co-Cultural Theoretical Analysis of Communication Factors Related to Rape Culture on a College Campus". Journal of Applied Communication Research. 37 (4): 465–485. doi:10.1080/00909880903233150. ISSN   0090-9882.
  48. ↑ Statistics (2009). "Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network" . Retrieved May 21, 2009.
  49. 1 2 3 Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Religion and Sexism; Images of Woman in the Jewish and Christian Traditions. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974. Print
  50. ↑ Millett, Kate, MacKinnon, Catharine A., and Mead, Rebecca. Sexual Politics . New York: Columbia University Press, 2016. Print.
  51. ↑ Rowbotham, Sheila. Woman's Consciousness, Man's World. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973. Print.
  52. ↑ Treichler, P., and C. Kramarae. (1985) A feminist dictionary. Boston. Print.
  53. ↑ Long, Hannah R. "Expanding the Dialogue: 7e Need for Fat Studies in Critical Intercultural Communication." (Winter 2015).
  54. ↑ Muñoz, J. E. (1999). Disidentifications: Queers of color and the performance of politics. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
  55. ↑ Orbe, Mark P. (September 1996). "Laying the foundation for co‐cultural communication theory: An inductive approach to studying "non‐dominant" communication strategies and the factors that influence them". Communication Studies. 47 (3): 157–176. doi:10.1080/10510979609368473.
  56. 1 2 Martorana, C. (2019). The Muted Group Video Project: Amplifying the Voices of Latinx Immigrant Students. Reflections: A Journal of Public Rhetoric, Civic Writing & Service Learning, 19(2).
  57. ↑ Gross, L. (1993). Contested closets: The politics and ethics of outing. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press
  58. ↑ Fox, Jesse; Warber, Katie M. (February 2015). "Queer Identity Management and Political Self-Expression on Social Networking Sites: A Co-Cultural Approach to the Spiral of Silence". Journal of Communication. 65 (1): 79–100. doi:10.1111/jcom.12137.
  59. 1 2 3 Ladson-Billings, Gloria (January 1998). "Just what is critical race theory and what's it doing in a nice field like education?". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 11 (1): 7–24. doi:10.1080/095183998236863. S2CID 53628887.
  60. 1 2 3 Delgado, Richard (1 August 1989). "Storytelling for Oppositionists and Others: A Plea for Narrative". Michigan Law Review. 87 (8): 2411–2441. doi:10.2307/1289308. JSTOR 1289308.
  61. ↑ Medina, Cruz. 2013. “Nuestros Refranes: Culturally Relevant Writing in Tucson High Schools.” Reflections 13, no. 1 (Fall): 52-79.
  62. ↑ Barkman, Linda Lee Smith. 2018. “Muted Group Theory: A Tool for Hearing Marginalized Voices.” Priscilla Papers 32, no. 4 (Autumn): 3-7.
  63. ↑ Swartz, Ellen (1992). "Emancipatory Narratives: Rewriting the Master Script in the School Curriculum". The Journal of Negro Education. 61 (3): 341–355. doi:10.2307/2295252. JSTOR 2295252.
  64. 1 2 3 4 5 Seaver, Carol (1996). "Muted lives: older battered women". Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect. 8 (2): 3–21. doi:10.1300/J084v08n02_02.
  65. 1 2 Ballard-Reisch 87-93, Deborah (2010). "Muted groups in health communication policy and practice: The case of older adults in rural and frontier areas". Women & Language. 33 (2): 87–93.
  66. 1 2 Brown, Maria T. (2009). "LGBT aging and rhetorical silence". Sexuality Research and Social Policy. 6 (4): 65–78. doi:10.1525/srsp.2009.6.4.65. S2CID 45209545 – via Syracuse University.
  67. 1 2 Calasanti, T. (2008) A feminist confronts ageism. Journal of Aging Studies. 22, 2. 152-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2007.12.009.
  68. 1 2 Calvez, Marcel (2001). "Involvement and detachment in intellectual disability studies". Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research. 3(2): 41–55. doi:10.1080/15017410109510775.
  69. 1 2 Woodcock S, Hitches E. (2017). Potential or problem? An investigation of secondary school teachers’ attributions of the educational outcomes of students with specific learning difficulties. Annals of Dyslexia67(3): 299–317.
  70. ↑ Hechter, M. (2004). "From class to culture" (PDF). The American Journal of Sociology. 110 (2): 400–445. doi:10.1086/421357. S2CID 62818905. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-18.
  71. 1 2 3 4 Orbe, MP (1995). "African American Communication Research: Toward a Deeper Understanding of Interethnic Communication". Western Journal of Communication. 59: 61–78. doi:10.1080/10570319509374507.
  72. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Orbe, Mark P. (February 1998). "From The Standpoint(s) of Traditionally Muted Groups: Explicating A Co-cuItural Communication Theoretical Model". Communication Theory. 8 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1998.tb00209.x.
  73. 1 2 Orbe, M. P. (1995). Continuing the legacy of theorizing from the margins: Conceptualizations of co-cultural theory", Women and Language. pp. 65–66.
  74. 1 2 Orbe, M. P. (1998). "Explicating a co-cultural communication theoretical model", African American communication and identities: Essential reading. Thousand Oakes.
  75. ↑ Hardman, M. J.; Taylor, A. (2000). Hearing Many Voices. Hampton Press.
  76. 1 2 3 Chopra, Radhika (May 2001). "Retrieving the father". Women's Studies International Forum. 24 (3–4): 445–455. doi:10.1016/S0277-5395(01)00168-6.
  77. ↑ Prince, Virginia (2005-12-19). "Sex vs. Gender". International Journal of Transgenderism. 8 (4): 29–32. doi:10.1300/J485v08n04_05. ISSN 1553-2739. S2CID 144905560.
  78. 1 2 3 Chopra, R. (2006). Invisible Men: Masculinity, Sexuality, and Male Domestic Labor. Men and Masculinities, 9(2), 152-167. doi : 10.1177/1097184X06287766
  79. 1 2 3 Ardener, Shirley; Edwin Ardener (2005). ""Muted Groups": The genesis of an idea and its praxis". Women and Language. 28 (2): 51.
  80. ↑ Ivy, D. K. (2012). GenderSpeak: Personal effectiveness in gender communication. New York, NY: Pearson.
  81. 1 2 Tannen, Deborah (2005). Conversational style: Analyzing Talk Among Friends. New York: Oxford University Press.
  82. ↑ Griffin, Em (2011). A First Look at Communication Theory. David Patterson. ISBN   978-0-07-353430-5.
  83. 1 2 Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice : Psychological Theory and Women's Development . Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1993. Print.
  84. ↑ Turner, Lynn H (1992). "An Analysis of Words Coined by Women and Men: Reflections on the Muted Group Theory and Gilligan's Model". Women and Language. 15 (1): 21. ProQuest 198810996.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.