Standpoint theory

Last updated

Standpoint theory, also known as standpoint epistemology, [1] is a foundational framework in social theory that examines how individuals' unique perspectives, shaped by their social and political experiences, influence their understanding of the world. Standpoint theory proposes that authority is rooted in individuals' personal knowledge and perspectives and the power that such authority exerts.

Contents

First originating in feminist philosophy, this theory posits that marginalized groups, situated as "outsiders within," offer valuable insights that challenge dominant perspectives and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of societal dynamics. Standpoint theory's central concept is that an individual's perspectives are shaped by their social and political experiences. The amalgamation of a person's experiences forms a standpoint—a point of view—through which that individual sees and understands the world. In response to critiques that early standpoint theory treated social perspectives as monolithic or essentialized, social theorists understand standpoints as multifaceted rather than unvarying or absolute. [2] For example, while Hispanic women may generally share some perspectives, particularly with regard to ethnicity and gender, they are not defined solely by these viewpoints; despite some common features, there is no essentially Hispanic female identity.

Standpoint theorists emphasize the utility of a naturalistic, or everyday experiential, concept of knowing (i.e., epistemology). One's standpoint (whether reflexively considered or not) shapes which concepts are intelligible, which claims are heard and understood by whom, which features of the world are perceptually salient, which reasons are understood to be relevant and forceful, and which conclusions credible. [3]

Standpoint theory supports what feminist theorist Sandra Harding calls strong objectivity, or the notion that the perspectives of marginalized and/or oppressed individuals can help to create more objective accounts of the world. Through the outsider-within phenomenon, these individuals are placed in a unique position to point to patterns of behavior that those immersed in the dominant group culture are unable to recognize. [4] Standpoint theory gives voice to the marginalized groups by allowing them to challenge the status quo as the outsider within the status quo representing the dominant position of privilege. [5]

The predominant culture in which all groups exist is not experienced in the same way by all persons or groups. The views of those who belong to groups with more social power are validated more than those in marginalized groups.[ weasel words ] Those in marginalized groups must learn to be bicultural, or to "pass" in the dominant culture to survive,[ clarification needed ] even though that perspective is not their own. [6]

History

First-wave standpoint theory

First-wave standpoint theory emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, spearheaded by feminist philosophers like Sandra Harding. [7] In Harding's 1986 book The Science Question in Feminism, she introduced the term "standpoint" to distinguish it from a generic perspective, emphasizing the requirement of political engagement. It aimed to challenge conventional notions of objectivity and neutrality in scientific inquiry by foregrounding the political engagement and lived experiences of marginalized groups, particularly women. Harding argues that the political engagement of feminists and their active focus on the lives of women allows them to have an epistemically privileged "standpoint". [2] Harding also maintained that it is the marginalized groups that ultimately provide the clearest view on the true opportunities and obstacles faced in society. [8]

Feminist standpoint theory's initial focus was in challenging the idea of scientific neutrality and objectivity from a presupposed generalized knower. This wave of standpoint theory underscored how gendered identities influence individuals' epistemic resources and capacities, impacting their access to knowledge. [9] By centering the experiences of women, first-wave standpoint theorists sought to dismantle patriarchal structures in knowledge production and highlight the epistemic privilege inherent in marginalized perspectives.

Some uses of standpoint theory have been based in Hegelian and Marxist theory, [10] such as Hegel's study of the different standpoints of slaves and masters in 1807. [11] Hegel, a German Idealist, claimed that the master-slave relationship is about people's belonging positions, and the groups affect how people receive knowledge and power. [12] Hegel's influence can be seen in some later feminist studies. For example, Nancy Hartsock examined standpoint theory by using relations between men and women. She published "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism" in 1983. Hartsock used Hegel's master–slave dialectic and Marx's theory of class and capitalism as an inspiration to look into matters of sex and gender.

Second-wave standpoint theory

Second-wave standpoint theory evolved to encompass a broader range of social positions, including, race, social class, culture, and economic status. [13] Standpoint theory seeks to develop a particular feminist epistemology, that values the experiences of women and minorities as a source for knowledge. [14]

Prominent standpoint theorists such as Dorothy Smith, Nancy Hartsock, Donna Haraway, Sandra Harding, Alison Wylie, Lynette Hunter and Patricia Hill Collins expanded the theoretical framework, emphasizing the importance of intersectionality. Second-wave standpoint theorists and activists in the United States developed the related concept of intersectionality [15] to examine oppressions caused by the interactions between social factors such as gender, race, sexuality, and culture. [16] Intersectionality became a key concept, explaining how intersecting oppressions contribute to complex power dynamics. For example, intersectionality can explain how social factors contribute to divisions of labor in the workforce. [17] Though intersectionality was developed to consider social and philosophical issues, it has been applied in a range of academic areas [18] like higher education, [19] identity politics, [20] and geography. [21]

Third-wave standpoint theory

Contemporary standpoint theory continues to evolve [22] in response to shifting political, social, and economic landscapes. In the era of third-wave feminism, characterized by inclusivity and activism, standpoint theory emphasizes the importance of community and collective action. This wave highlights the voices and experiences of diverse groups, including Black women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and people with disabilities. Examples include the first female and person of color Vice President of the United States, Kamala Harris, the global pandemic [23] and the overturning of Roe v. Wade. [24] In modern times, third-wave feminism emphasizes inclusive community and action. [25] [26] This has resulted in a resurgence of feminist activism and further integration of intersecting identities, like the unique perspective of Black women and abortion rights. [27]

Standpoint theorist, Patricia Hill Collins, highlights the resonance of Standpoint Theory with Black feminist groups, in that, standpoint theory can be used as a framework for understanding Black feminist thought. [28] Standpoint theory can be a framework for understanding the oppression of Black women or what feminist theorist Catherine E. Harnois coins as the "Black women's standpoint". [29]

Key concepts

Generally, standpoint theory gives insight into specific circumstances only available to the members of a certain collective standpoint. According to Michael Ryan, "the idea of a collective standpoint does not imply an essential overarching characteristic but rather a sense of belonging to a group bounded by a shared experience." [30] Kristina Rolin criticizes common misunderstandings of standpoint theory that include "the assumption of essentialism that all women share the same socially grounded perspective in virtue of being women, the assumption of automatic epistemic privilege is that epistemic advantage accrues to the subordinate automatically, just in virtue of their occupying a particular social position." [31] She suggests that, on the contrary, neither assumptions are part of standpoint theory. According to standpoint theory:

Key terms

  1. Social location: Viewpoints and perspectives are ultimately created through the groups that we subscribe to (created by connections through race, gender, etc.). [32]
  2. Epistemology: The theory of knowledge
  3. Intersectionality: The characteristics of an individual's life, such as race and gender, that come together to create all aspects of one's identity.
  4. Matrix of domination: Societal systems put in place that support the dominant group's power.
  5. Local knowledge: Knowledge that is rooted in an individual's beliefs, experiences, along with time and place.

Applications

Since standpoint theory focuses on marginalized populations, it is often applied within fields that focus on these populations. Standpoint has been referenced as a concept that should be acknowledged and understood in the social work field, especially when approaching and assisting clients. [33] Social workers seek to understand the concept of positionality within dynamic systems to encourage empathy. [34] [35] Many marginalized populations rely on the welfare system to survive. Those who structure the welfare system typically have never needed to utilize its services before. Standpoint theory has been presented as a method to improving the welfare system by recognizing suggestions made by those within the welfare system. [36] In Africa, standpoint theory has catalyzed a social movement where women are introduced to the radio in order to promote awareness of their experiences and hardships and to help these women heal and find closure. [37] Another example dealing with Africa is slavery and how slavery differed greatly depending on if one was the slave or the master. If there were any power relationships, there could never be a single perspective. No viewpoint could ever be complete, and there is no limit to anyone's perspective.

Asante and Davis's (1989) study of interracial encounters in the workplace found that because of different cultural perspectives, approaching organizational interactions with others with different beliefs, assumptions, and meanings often leads to miscommunication. Brenda Allen stated in her research that, "Organizational members' experiences, attitudes, and behaviors in the workplace are often influenced by race-ethnicity." [38]

Paul Adler and John Jermier suggest that management scholars should be aware of their standpoints. They write that those studying management should "consciously choose [their] standpoints and take responsibility for the impact (or lack of impact) of [their] scholarship on the world." [39]

Jermier argued that all parts of a research study – identifying the problem, theorizing research questions, gathering and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and the knowledge produced – are there to some extent because of the researcher's standpoint. This caused him to question what standpoint to adopt in the management of scientists. To avoid falling into limitations of the status quo and certain standpoints, he said that "the view from below has greater potential to generate more complete and more objective knowledge claims." He continues to say that "if our desire is to heal the world, we will learn more about how the root mechanisms of the world work and about how things can be changed by adopting the standpoints of those people and other parts of nature that most deeply suffer its wounds." [40]

Feminist standpoint theory

Feminist standpoint theorists make three principal claims: (1) Knowledge is socially situated. (2) Marginalized groups are socially situated in ways that make it more possible for them to be aware of things and ask questions than it is for the non-marginalized. (3) Research, particularly that focused on power relations, should begin with the lives of the marginalized. [41]

Specifically, feminist standpoint theory is guided by four main theses: strong objectivity, the situated knowledge, epistemic advantage, and power relations. [7]

Feminist standpoint theorists such as Dorothy Smith, Patricia Hill Collins, Nancy Hartsock, and Sandra Harding claimed that certain socio-political positions occupied by women (and by extension other groups who lack social and economic privilege) can become sites of epistemic privilege and thus productive starting points for inquiry into questions about not only those who are socially and politically marginalized, but also those who, by dint of social and political privilege, occupy the positions of oppressors. This claim was specifically generated by Sandra Harding and as such, "Starting off research from women's lives will generate less partial and distorted accounts not only of women's lives but also of men’s lives and of the whole social order." [12] This practice is also quite evident when women enter into professions that are considered to be male oriented. Londa Schiebinger states, "While women now study at prestigious universities at about the same rate as men, they are rarely invited to join the faculty at top universities ... The sociologist Harriet Zuckerman has observed that 'the more prestigious the institution, the longer women wait to be promoted.' Men, generally speaking, face no such trade-off." [42]

Standpoint feminists have been concerned with these dualisms for two related reasons. First, dualisms usually imply a hierarchical relationship between the terms, elevating one and devaluing the other. [43] Also, related to this issue is the concern that these dualisms often become gendered in our culture. In this process, men are associated with one extreme and women with the other. In the case of reason and emotion, women are identified with emotion. Because our culture values emotion less than reason, women suffer from this association. Feminist critics are usually concerned with the fact that dualisms force false dichotomies (partition of a whole) onto women and men, failing to see that life is less either/or than both/and, as relational dialectics theory holds.

Indigenous standpoint theory

Indigenous standpoint theory is an intricate theoretical approach in how indigenous people navigate the difficulties of their experiences within spaces which contest their epistemology. Utility of this approach stems from diverse background of marginalized groups across societies and cultures whose unique experiences have been rejected and suppressed within a majoritarian intellectual knowledge production. [44] However, the analysis of these experiences is not the cycle of accumulation of stories, of lived experiences, and in turn, does not produce limitless subjective narratives to obstruct objective knowledge. Martin Nakata is the foremost propounder of indigenous standpoint theory.

Indigenous standpoint, as well as feminist theory, expect the "knower" to address their social status of privilege to those they are researching. When addressing ourselves as "knowers" into the setting, the intention is not to realign the focus, but rather to include the social relations within what we as "knowers" know. This is a matter of respect as the researcher is expected to declare who they are and on what basis they write. This "self-awareness is fundamental to the research process because it should result in a researcher role that is respectful and not disruptive, aggressive or controlling". [45]

An Indigenous "knower" does not possess a predisposed "readymade critical stance" on the world, but rather questions that must be answered before objective knowledge is obtained. Thus, this engagement enables us to create a critical Indigenous standpoint. This in itself does not determine truth; instead, it produces a range potential argument with further possible answers. The arguments established, however, still require its basis to be rational and reasonable and answer the logic and assumptions on which they were established. Thus, arguments cannot assert a claim of truth on an idea because they, the Indigenous individual, are a part of the Indigenous community as the theory would not allow to authorise themselves solely truthful on the basis of their experience. Indigenous standpoint theory is facilitated by three principles, defined by Martin Nakata.

Nakata states that these three principles allow him to forge a critical standpoint from the cultural interface and enable him to create better arguments in relation to his position within epistemologies and with other groups of "knowers". However, one cannot overturn a position one is dominant in just because of one's background due to the arguments being simplistic or misrepresented with no evidence to support itself etc.

Thus, Indigenous standpoint theory can be defined as a "method of inquiry, a process for making more intelligible 'the corpus of objectified knowledge about us' as it emerges and organizes understanding of ... lived realities". [44]

Criticisms

Critics argue that standpoint theory, despite challenging essentialism, relies itself on essentialism, as it focuses on the dualism of subjectivity and objectivity. [43] In regard to feminist standpoint theory: though it does dispel many false generalizations of women, it is argued that focus on social groups and social classes of women is still inherently essentialist. Generalizations across the entire female gender can be broken into smaller more specific groups pertaining to women's different social classes and cultures, but are still generalized as distinct groups, and thus marginalization still occurs. West and Turner state that Catherine O'Leary (1997) argued that although standpoint theory has helped reclaim women's experiences as suitable research topics, it contains a problematic emphasis on the universality of this experience, at the expense of differences among women's experiences. [43]

Another main criticism of Harding and Wood's standpoint theory is the credibility of strong objectivity vs. subjectivity. Standpoint theorists argue that standpoints are relative and cannot be evaluated by any absolute criteria but make the assumption that the oppressed are less biased or more impartial than the privileged. [12] This leaves open the possibility of an overbalance of power, in which the oppressed group intentionally or unintentionally becomes the oppressor. Intentional overbalance of power, or revenge, can manifest as justification for extremism and militarism, which can sometimes be seen in more extreme forms of feminism.[ clarification needed ]

While standpoint theory began with a critical Marxist view of social-class oppression, it developed in the 1970s and 1980s along with changes in feminist philosophy. Other groups, as of now, need to be included into the theory and a new emphasis needs to be made toward other marginalized or muted groups. When Harding and Wood created standpoint theory, they did not account for how different cultures can exist within the same social group. "Early standpoint theorists sought to understand the way in which the gendered identity of knowers affected their epistemic resources and capacities". [46] : 48  These other muted or marginalized groups have a more realistic approach to standpoint theory as they have different experiences than those that are in power and even within those muted groups differences defined by different cultures of people can have an altered standpoint. This view gives a basis to a central principle of standpoint theory—the inversion thesis. Academic Joshua St. Pierre defines the inversion thesis as giving "epistemic authority to those marginalized by systems of oppression insofar as these people are often better knowers than those who benefit from oppression. Put simply: social dispossession produces epistemic privilege."

Wylie has perhaps provided the most succinct articulation of second-wave standpoint theory. For her, a standpoint does not mark out a clearly defined territory such as "women" within which members have automatic privilege but is a rather a posture of epistemic engagement. Responding to the claim that the situated knowledge thesis reifies essentialism, Wylie argues that it is "an open (empirical) question whether such structures obtain in a given context, what form they take, and how they are internalized or embodied by individuals". [46] : 62  Identities are complex and cannot be reduced to simple binaries. Likewise, she argues that the criticism of automatic privilege falters insofar as a standpoint is never given but is achieved (St. Pierre). [46] This can be seen as an instance of moving the goalposts.

See also

Related Research Articles

Women's studies is an academic field that draws on feminist and interdisciplinary methods to place women's lives and experiences at the center of study, while examining social and cultural constructs of gender; systems of privilege and oppression; and the relationships between power and gender as they intersect with other identities and social locations such as race, sexual orientation, socio-economic class, and disability.

Postcolonial feminism is a form of feminism that developed as a response to feminism focusing solely on the experiences of women in Western cultures and former colonies. Postcolonial feminism seeks to account for the way that racism and the long-lasting political, economic, and cultural effects of colonialism affect non-white, non-Western women in the postcolonial world. Postcolonial feminism originated in the 1980s as a critique of feminist theorists in developed countries pointing out the universalizing tendencies of mainstream feminist ideas and argues that women living in non-Western countries are misrepresented.

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as anthropology and sociology, communication, media studies, psychoanalysis, political theory, home economics, literature, education, and philosophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dorothy E. Smith</span> British-Canadian sociologist (1926–2022)

Dorothy Edith Smith was a British-born Canadian ethnographer, feminist studies scholar, sociologist, and writer with research interests in a variety of disciplines. These include women's studies, feminist theory, psychology, and educational studies. Smith was also involved in certain subfields of sociology, such as the sociology of knowledge, family studies, and methodology. She founded the sociological sub-disciplines of feminist standpoint theory and institutional ethnography.

Feminist legal theory, also known as feminist jurisprudence, is based on the belief that the law has been fundamental in women's historical subordination. Feminist jurisprudence the philosophy of law is based on the political, economic, and social inequality of the sexes and feminist legal theory is the encompassment of law and theory connected.The project of feminist legal theory is twofold. First, feminist jurisprudence seeks to explain ways in which the law played a role in women's former subordinate status. Feminist legal theory was directly created to recognize and combat the legal system built primarily by the and for male intentions, often forgetting important components and experiences women and marginalized communities face. The law perpetuates a male valued system at the expense of female values. Through making sure all people have access to participate in legal systems as professionals to combating cases in constitutional and discriminatory law, feminist legal theory is utilized for it all.

Sandra G. Harding is an American philosopher of feminist and postcolonial theory, epistemology, research methodology, and philosophy of science. She directed the UCLA Center for the Study of Women from 1996 to 2000, and co-edited Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society from 2000 to 2005. She is currently a Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Education and Gender Studies at UCLA and a Distinguished Affiliate Professor of Philosophy at Michigan State University. In 2013 she was awarded the John Desmond Bernal Prize by the Society for the Social Studies of Science (4S).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intersectionality</span> Theory of discrimination

Intersectionality is a sociological analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege. Examples of these factors include gender, caste, sex, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, religion, disability, height, age, weight and physical appearance. These intersecting and overlapping social identities may be both empowering and oppressing. However, little good-quality quantitative research has been done to support or undermine the practical uses of intersectionality.

Transnational feminism refers to both a contemporary feminist paradigm and the corresponding activist movement. Both the theories and activist practices are concerned with how globalization and capitalism affect people across nations, races, genders, classes, and sexualities. This movement asks to critique the ideologies of traditional white, classist, western models of feminist practices from an intersectional approach and how these connect with labor, theoretical applications, and analytical practice on a geopolitical scale.

Standpoint feminism is a theory that feminist social science should be practiced from the standpoint of women or particular groups of women, as some scholars say that they are better equipped to understand some aspects of the world. A feminist or women's standpoint epistemology proposes to make women's experiences the point of departure, in addition to, and sometimes instead of men's.

Epistemic advantage is a term used within feminist theory when attempting to acquire knowledge from the individual lives and experiences of different women. The term is used to describe the ways in which women, and other minority groups, are able to have a much clearer understanding of how the power structure works within a given society because they are not members of the dominant group. Uma Narayan, a leading feminist theorist writes about epistemic advantage in her essay, "The Project of Feminist Epistemology: Perspectives From A Nonwestern Feminist". Narayan defines epistemic advantage as "(the oppressed) having knowledge of the practices of both their own contexts and those of their oppressors". As the feminist movement has moved into the 3rd wave, women's 'intersecting identities' have become increasingly important. There has been an acknowledgement that women of different social locations will have different experiences. Thus these varying perspectives provide different women with 'advantages' in understanding their own specific social locations within a given society's hierarchal power structure. Uma Narayan points out that while it is in the interest of various subordinate groups to have knowledge of the dominant group, the dominant group does not have the same need.

Feminist philosophy is an approach to philosophy from a feminist perspective and also the employment of philosophical methods to feminist topics and questions. Feminist philosophy involves both reinterpreting philosophical texts and methods in order to supplement the feminist movement and attempts to criticise or re-evaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy from within a feminist framework.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African feminism</span> Type of feminism

African feminism includes theories and movements which specifically address the experiences and needs of continental African women. From a western perspective, these theories and movements fall under the umbrella label of Feminism, but this categorization is misleading for many branches of African "feminism". African women have been engaged in gender struggle since long before the existence of the western-inspired label "African feminism," and this history is often neglected. Despite this caveat, this page will use the term feminism with regard to African theories and movements in order to fit into a relevant network of Wikipedia pages on global feminism. Because Africa is not a monolith, no single feminist theory or movement reflects the entire range of experiences African women have. African feminist theories are sometimes aligned, in dialogue, or in conflict with Black Feminism or African womanism. This page covers general principles of African feminism, several distinct theories, and a few examples of feminist movements and theories in various African countries.

Feminist epistemology is an examination of epistemology from a feminist standpoint.

Feminist theory in composition studies examines how gender, language, and cultural studies affect the teaching and practice of writing. It challenges the traditional assumptions and methods of composition studies and proposes alternative approaches that are informed by feminist perspectives. Feminist theory in composition studies covers a range of topics, such as the history and development of women’s writing, the role of gender in rhetorical situations, the representation and identity of writers, and the pedagogical implications of feminist theory for writing instruction. Feminist theory in composition studies also explores how writing can be used as a tool for empowerment, resistance, and social change. Feminist theory in composition studies emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a response to the male-dominated field of composition and rhetoric. It has been influenced by various feminist movements and disciplines, such as second-wave feminism, poststructuralism, psychoanalysis, critical race theory, and queer theory. Feminist theory in composition studies has contributed to the revision of traditional rhetorical concepts, the recognition of diverse voices and genres, the promotion of collaborative and ethical communication, and the integration of personal and political issues in writing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist movements and ideologies</span>

A variety of movements of feminist ideology have developed over the years. They vary in goals, strategies, and affiliations. They often overlap, and some feminists identify themselves with several branches of feminist thought.

Feminist political theory is an area of philosophy that focuses on understanding and critiquing the way political philosophy is usually construed and on articulating how political theory might be reconstructed in a way that advances feminist concerns. Feminist political theory combines aspects of both feminist theory and political theory in order to take a feminist approach to traditional questions within political philosophy.

Feminist empiricism is a perspective within feminist research that combines the objectives and observations of feminism with the research methods and empiricism. Feminist empiricism is typically connected to mainstream notions of positivism. Feminist empiricism critiques what it perceives to be inadequacies and biases within mainstream research methods, including positivism.

Multiracial feminist theory is promoted by women of color (WOC), including Black, Latina, Asian, Native American, and anti-racist white women. In 1996, Maxine Baca Zinn and Bonnie Thornton Dill wrote “Theorizing Difference from Multiracial Feminism," a piece emphasizing intersectionality and the application of intersectional analysis within feminist discourse.

White feminism is a term which is used to describe expressions of feminism which are perceived as focusing on white women but are perceived as failing to address the existence of distinct forms of oppression faced by ethnic minority women and women lacking other privileges.Whiteness is crucial in structuring the lived experiences of white women across a variety of contexts. The term has been used to label and criticize theories that are perceived as focusing solely on gender-based inequality. Primarily used as a derogatory label, "white feminism" is typically used to reproach a perceived failure to acknowledge and integrate the intersection of other identity attributes into a broader movement which struggles for equality on more than one front. In white feminism, the oppression of women is analyzed through a single-axis framework, consequently erasing the identity and experiences of ethnic minority women the space. The term has also been used to refer to feminist theories perceived to focus more specifically on the experience of white, cisgender, heterosexual, able-bodied women, and in which the experiences of women without these characteristics are excluded or marginalized. This criticism has predominantly been leveled against the first waves of feminism which were seen as centered around the empowerment of white middle-class women in Western societies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist philosophy of science</span> Means of interpreting scientific evidence through a feminist lens

Feminist philosophy of science is a branch of feminist philosophy that seeks to understand how the acquirement of knowledge through scientific means has been influenced by notions of gender identity and gender roles in society. Feminist philosophers of science question how scientific research and scientific knowledge itself may be influenced and possibly compromised by the social and professional framework within which that research and knowledge is established and exists. The intersection of gender and science allows feminist philosophers to reexamine fundamental questions and truths in the field of science to reveal how gender biases may influence scientific outcomes. The feminist philosophy of science has been described as being located "at the intersections of the philosophy of science and feminist science scholarship" and has attracted considerable attention since the 1980s.

References

  1. ↑ Pohlhaus, Gaile (2002). "Knowing communities: An investigation of Harding's standpoint epistemology". Social Epistemology. 16 (3): 283–298. doi:10.1080/0269172022000025633. S2CID   143964950 . Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  2. 1 2 Borland, Elizabeth. "Standpoint theory". Britannica. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  3. ↑ Sprague-Jones, Jessica; Sprague, Joey (2011). "The Standpoint of Art/Criticism: Cindy Sherman as Feminist Artist?". Sociological Inquiry. 81 (4): 404–430. doi:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2011.00385.x.
  4. ↑ Allen, Brenda J. (1996). "Feminist Standpoint Theory: a Black Woman's Review of Organizational Socialization". Communication Studies. 47 (4): 257–271. doi:10.1080/10510979609368482.
  5. ↑ Buzzanell, Patrice M. (2003). "A Feminist Standpoint Analysis of Maternity and Maternity Leave for Women with Disabilities". Women and Language. 26 (2): 53–65.
  6. ↑ DeFrancisco, Victoria P. Communicating Gender Diversity: A Critical Approach. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, INC., 2007.
  7. 1 2 Gurung, Lina (22 January 2020). "Feminist Standpoint Theory: Conceptualization and Utility". Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology. 14: 106–115. doi: 10.3126/dsaj.v14i0.27357 . Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  8. ↑ Harding, Sandra (1991). Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? Thinking from Women's Lives. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 269–270.
  9. ↑ "Unit 6 Standpoint Theory and Knowledge Location" (PDF). IGNOU The People’s University. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  10. ↑ Bowell, T. "Feminist Standpoint Theory". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  11. ↑ Wood, J.T. (2008). Critical feminist theories. In L.A. Baxter & D.O. Braithwaite (Eds.), Engaging theories in interpersonal communication: Multiple perspectives (pp. 323-334). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  12. 1 2 3 Griffin, Em (2009). A First Look at Communication Theory: Standpoint Theory. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 441–453.
  13. ↑ Wallance, R. A., and A. Wolf (1995). Contemporary Sociological Theory: Continuing the classical tradition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  14. ↑ McCann and Kim, Feminist Theory Reader: Local and global perspectives, 2003.
  15. ↑ Berger, Michele Tracy (2009). The intersectional approach: transforming the academy through race, class, and gender. Guidroz, Kathleen. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN   978-0-8078-9556-6. OCLC   500625115.
  16. ↑ Hill Collins, Patricia (27 June 2016). Bilge, Sirma (ed.). Intersectionality. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. p. 29. ISBN   978-0-7456-8448-2. OCLC   923665818.
  17. ↑ Browne, Irene; Misra, Joya (August 2003). "The Intersection of Gender and Race in the Labor Market". Annual Review of Sociology. 29 (1): 487–513. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100016. ISSN   0360-0572.
  18. ↑ Davis, K. (2008-04-01). "Intersectionality as buzzword: A sociology of science perspective on what makes a feminist theory successful". Feminist Theory. 9 (1): 67–85. doi:10.1177/1464700108086364. ISSN   1464-7001. S2CID   145295170.
  19. ↑ Norgbey, Enyonam Brigitte (2018-09-06). "The Role of Feminist Standpoint and Intersectionality Epistemologies in Providing Insights into the Causes of Gender Disparity in Higher Education". Education Journal - Revue de l'éducation. 6 (1): 19. doi: 10.18192/ejre.v6i1.2063 . ISSN   2560-8746.
  20. ↑ Crenshaw, Kimberle (1991). "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color". Stanford Law Review. 43 (6): 1241–1299. doi:10.2307/1229039. ISSN   0038-9765. JSTOR   1229039. S2CID   24661090.
  21. ↑ Valentine, Gill (2007-02-01). "Theorizing and Researching Intersectionality: A Challenge for Feminist Geography". The Professional Geographer. 59 (1): 10–21. Bibcode:2007ProfG..59...10V. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00587.x. ISSN   0033-0124. S2CID   143295170.
  22. ↑ Mann, Susan Archer; Huffman, Douglas J. (2005-01-01). "The Decentering of Second Wave Feminism and the Rise of the Third Wave". Science & Society. 69 (1): 56–91. doi:10.1521/siso.69.1.56.56799. ISSN   0036-8237.
  23. ↑ Faraday, Fay (2021). "Intersectional Feminism, Racial Capitalism, and the COVID-19 Pandemic". University of New Brunswick Law Journal. 72: 222.
  24. ↑ Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta (2022-02-22). "How Black Feminists Defined Abortion Rights". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2022-11-13.
  25. ↑ Snyder, R. Claire (2008-09-01). "What Is Third‐Wave Feminism? A New Directions Essay". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 34 (1): 175–196. doi:10.1086/588436. ISSN   0097-9740. S2CID   144068546.
  26. ↑ Merriman, Kevin (Winter 2006). "The Women's Movement Today: An Encyclopedia of Third-Wave Feminism". ProQuest: 97. ProQuest   217877038.
  27. ↑ Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta (2022-02-22). "How Black Feminists Defined Abortion Rights". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2022-11-13.
  28. ↑ Collins, Patricia Hill (2003), Lott, Tommy Lee; Pittman, John P. (eds.), "Some Group Matters: Intersectionality, Situated Standpoints, and Black Feminist Thought", A Companion to African-American Philosophy, Blackwell, retrieved 2022-11-13
  29. ↑ Harnois, Catherine E. (2010). "Race, Gender, and the Black Women's Standpoint". Sociological Forum. 25 (1): 68–85. doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2009.01157.x. ISSN   0884-8971. JSTOR   40542541.
  30. ↑ Encyclopedia of Social Theory, 789.
  31. ↑ Rolin, Kristina (2009). "Standpoint Theory as a Methodology for the Study of Power Relations". Hypatia. 24 (4): 218–226. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2009.01070.x. JSTOR   20618192. S2CID   145680567.
  32. ↑ Griffin, Em (2022). A First Look at Communication Theory (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill. pp. 382–396. ISBN   9781264296101.
  33. ↑ Swigonski, Mary E. (1993). "Feminist Standpoint Theory and the Questions of Social Work Research". Affilia. 8 (2): 171–183. doi:10.1177/088610999300800203. S2CID   145571359.
  34. ↑ Finn, Janet L.; Jacobson, Maxine (2003-01-01). "Just Practice". Journal of Social Work Education. 39 (1): 57–78. doi:10.1080/10437797.2003.10779119. ISSN   1043-7797. S2CID   141736273.
  35. ↑ Segal, Elizabeth A. (2011-04-26). "Social Empathy: A Model Built on Empathy, Contextual Understanding, and Social Responsibility That Promotes Social Justice". Journal of Social Service Research. 37 (3): 266–277. doi:10.1080/01488376.2011.564040. ISSN   0148-8376. S2CID   76656353.
  36. ↑ Edmonds-Cady, C (2009). "Getting to the grassroots: Feminist standpoints within the welfare movement". Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare. 36 (2): 11–33. doi: 10.15453/0191-5096.3427 . S2CID   143175771.
  37. ↑ Gatua, M. W.; Patton, T. O.; Brown, M. R. (2010). "Giving voice to invisible women: "FIRE" as model of a successful women's community radio in Africa". Howard Journal of Communications. 21 (2): 164–181. doi:10.1080/10646171003727441. S2CID   145629357.
  38. ↑ Allen, Brenda J. (1995). ""Diversity" and organizational communication". Journal of Applied Communication Research. 23 (2): 143–155. doi:10.1080/00909889509365420. p. 145.
  39. ↑ Adler, Paul; Jermier, John (2005). "Developing a Field with More Soul: Standpoint theory and Public Policy Research for Management Scholars". Academy of Management Journal. 48 (6): 941–944. doi:10.5465/amj.2005.19573091. p. 942.
  40. ↑ Jermier, John M. (1998). "Introduction: Critical Perspective on Organizational Control". Administrative Science Quarterly. 43 (2): 235–256. doi:10.2307/2393852. JSTOR   2393852.
  41. ↑ Bowell, T. "Feminist Standpoint Theory". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  42. ↑ Schiebinger, Londa (1999). "Has feminism changed science?". Signs. 25 (4). United States of America: Harvard University Press: 33–53. doi:10.1086/495540. PMID   17089478. S2CID   225088475.
  43. 1 2 3 West, R., and H. L. Turner (2004). Communication Theory. Analysis and Application.
  44. 1 2 3 4 5 Nakata, Martine (2007). Disciplining the Savages: Savaging the Disciplines. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. pp. 213–216.
  45. ↑ ArdiIl, Allan (2013). "Australian Sovereignty, Indigenous Standpoint Theory and Feminist Standpoint Theory". Griffith Law Review. 22 (2): 323. doi:10.1080/10383441.2013.10854778. hdl: 10072/59998 . S2CID   143983424.
  46. 1 2 3 Wylie, Alisson (2012). "Feminist Philosophy of Science: Standpoint Matters". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 86 (2): 47–76. JSTOR   43661298.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.