Obesity in pets occurs when excessive adipose tissue accumulates in the body, [1] and is generally defined as occurring when an animal's body weight is at least 20% greater than its optimal body weight. [2] Obesity is associated with metabolic and hormonal changes, and can predispose pets to illnesses like orthopedic disease, diabetes, and cancer. [1] [3] [4]
For dogs and cats, a 9 point body condition score (BCS) system is used to identify whether they are above their ideal weight status. [5] Scores 1-3 indicate 'too thin', 4 and 5 are 'ideal', 6 is 'above ideal', 7 is 'overweight' and 8 and 9 are 'obese'. There are numerous versions of the BCS chart available for use including 5-point and 7-point versions, however, the 9-point chart is the only version where the scores correlate with true body fat percentage measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans. [6]
Assigning a body condition score to a pet involves visual assessment and palpation of the animal to assess fat padding. An ideally conditioned dog should have a tapered waist when viewed from above and a clear abdominal tuck when viewed from the side. Ribs should not be visible, but ribs should be easily palpated with only a very thin layer of fat cover. [5] Ideally conditioned cats will have a waist that can be observed behind their ribs, a slight fat pad over their ribs, and a minimal abdominal fat pad with no abdominal tuck. [7]
These BCS methods are the most commonly used ways of diagnosing obesity in practice. Whilst they are not as accurate as performing DEXA scans that measure true body fat percentage, Body Condition Scoring is quick, non-invasive and requires no specialist equipment, just the scoring charts and a clinician. Similar systems exist for livestock. [8] For horses there is the Henneke horse body condition scoring system.
Using weight alone is not a reliable tool for diagnosing obesity as individuals within a species and breed can vary significantly in their size. Weighing is still useful for monitoring changes and a gain in weight may be an indication of excess weight and should prompt assessing BCS. For dogs under a year there are Puppy Growth Charts [9] where weights can be monitored in relation to an average growth curve, this again helps to monitor whether weight is increasing more than expected and deviating from the average growth curve should prompt assessing BCS.
Weight gain will occur when an animal is in a positive energy balance, meaning energy provided as calories in the diet exceed calories expended. [10] Evidence suggests that middle-aged cats and dogs, especially those between the ages of 5 and 10, may be at an increased risk of obesity. [11] This is supported by studies showing that as cats age from 2 years to approximately 11.5 years of age their energy requirements decrease. [12] Weight gain will occur if calories from the diet do not decrease with the animal's energy requirements. [12]
Obesity in pets is usually due to excessive food intake or lack of physical exercise. [13] Owners may view food as a way to reward and treat their pets, which contributes to overfeeding. [14] Pets confined to a house or small yard which are not regularly exercised are more prone to obesity. [14]
The risk of obesity in dogs (but not in cats) can be related to whether or not their owners are obese. The main factor seems to be obese owners not walking their dogs as much. [15]
In cats, neutering increases the risk of obesity, partly because the alteration in sex hormones after neutering lowers the basal metabolic rate, and partly because neutered cats have a reduced inclination to roam compared to non-neutered cats. [16]
Weight management has two steps: weight loss and weight maintenance. In the weight loss phase, energy intake from food must be less than the energy expended each day. [17] Achieving weight loss in cats and dogs is challenging, and failure to lose weight is common. [17] If the animals themselves cannot control their own calorie intake, it is recommended that pet owners control the food amount given. Guidelines exist on energy allowances for animals of a given body weight. [18]
Medical treatments have been developed to assist dogs in losing weight. Dirlotapide (brand name Slentrol) and mitratapide (brand name Yarvitan) were authorized for use in the EU by the European Medicines Agency for helping weight loss in dogs, by reducing appetite and food intake, but both of these drugs have been withdrawn from the market in the EU. [17] The US Food and Drug Administration approved dirlotapide in 2007. [19] Up to 20% of dogs treated with either dirlotapide or mitratapide experience vomiting and diarrhea; less commonly, loss of appetite may occur. [20] When these drugs are stopped, the dog's appetite returns to previous levels. [20] If other weight-loss strategies are not employed, the dog will again gain weight. [20]
Compared to non-obese animals, obese dogs and cats have a higher incidence of osteoarthritis (joint disease) and diabetes mellitus, which also occur earlier in the life of the animal. [1] Obese animals are also at increased risk of complications following anesthesia or surgery. [1]
Obese dogs are more likely to develop urinary incontinence, may have difficulty breathing, and overall have a poorer quality of life compared to non-obese dogs, [17] as well as having a lower life expectancy. [1] Obese cats have an increased risk of diseases affecting the mouth and urinary tract. [17] Obese cats which have difficulty grooming themselves are predisposed to dry, flaky skin and feline acne. [21]
In the United States, the prevalence of obese or overweight adult dogs is 23–53%, of which about 5% are obese; [22] [23] the incidence in adult cats is 55%, [23] of which about 8% are obese. [22]
In Australia, obesity is the most common nutritional disease of pets; [24] the prevalence of obesity in dogs in Australia is approximately 40%. [14]
Pet owners in the UK have been prosecuted for cruelty to animals due to their pets being dangerously obese. [25]
In the US, National Pet Obesity Awareness Day, is on the 14th of October. [26] [27]
Dieting is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity. As weight loss depends on calorie intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets, such as those emphasising particular macronutrients, have been shown to be no more effective than one another. As weight regain is common, diet success is best predicted by long-term adherence. Regardless, the outcome of a diet can vary widely depending on the individual.
Obesity is a medical condition, sometimes considered a disease, in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it negatively affects health. People are classified as obese when their body mass index (BMI)—a person's weight divided by the square of the person's height—is over 30 kg/m2; the range 25–30 kg/m2 is defined as overweight. Some East Asian countries use lower values to calculate obesity. Obesity is a major cause of disability and is correlated with various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis.
A kitten is a juvenile cat. After being born, kittens display primary altriciality and are fully dependent on their mothers for survival. They normally do not open their eyes for seven to ten days. After about two weeks, kittens develop quickly and begin to explore the world outside their nest. After a further three to four weeks, they begin to eat solid food and grow baby teeth. Domestic kittens are highly social animals and usually enjoy human companionship.
Dog food is food specifically formulated and intended for consumption by dogs and other related canines. Dogs are considered to be omnivores with a carnivorous bias. They have the sharp, pointed teeth and shorter gastrointestinal tracts of carnivores, better suited for the consumption of meat than of vegetable substances, yet also have ten genes that are responsible for starch and glucose digestion, as well as the ability to produce amylase, an enzyme that functions to break down carbohydrates into simple sugars – something that obligate carnivores like cats lack. Dogs evolved the ability living alongside humans in agricultural societies, as they managed on scrap leftovers and excrement from humans.
Neutering, from the Latin neuter, is the removal of a non-human animal's reproductive organ, either all of it or a considerably large part. The male-specific term is castration, while spaying is usually reserved for female animals. Colloquially, both terms are often referred to as fixing. In male horses, castrating is referred to as gelding. An animal that has not been neutered is sometimes referred to as entire or intact.
Cat food is food specifically designed for consumption by cats. As obligate carnivores, cats have specific requirements for their dietary nutrients, namely nutrients found only in meat, such as taurine, arginine, and Vitamin B6. Certain nutrients, including many vitamins and amino acids, are degraded by the temperatures, pressures and chemical treatments used during manufacture, and hence must be added after manufacture to avoid nutritional deficiency.
Weight gain is an increase in body weight. This can involve an increase in muscle mass, fat deposits, excess fluids such as water or other factors. Weight gain can be a symptom of a serious medical condition.
Diabetes is a chronic disease in cats whereby either insufficient insulin response or insulin resistance leads to persistently high blood glucose concentrations. Diabetes affects up to 1 in 230 cats, and may be becoming increasingly common. Diabetes is less common in cats than in dogs. Eighty to ninety-five percent of diabetic cats experience something similar to type 2 diabetes but are generally severely insulin dependent by the time symptoms are diagnosed. The condition is treatable, and if treated properly the cat can experience a normal life expectancy. In cats with type 2 diabetes, prompt effective treatment may lead to diabetic remission, in which the cat no longer needs injected insulin. Untreated, the condition leads to increasingly weak legs in cats and eventually to malnutrition, ketoacidosis and/or dehydration, and death.
The health of dogs is a well studied area in veterinary medicine.
Pet food is animal feed intended for consumption by pets. Typically sold in pet stores and supermarkets, it is usually specific to the type of animal, such as dog food or cat food. Most meat used for animals is a byproduct of the human food industry, and is not regarded as "human grade".
The health of domestic cats is a well studied area in veterinary medicine.
Diet plays an important role in the genesis of obesity. Personal choices, food advertising, social customs and cultural influences, as well as food availability and pricing all play a role in determining what and how much an individual eats.
The Henneke horse body condition scoring system is a numerical scale used to evaluate the amount of fat on a horse's body. It was developed in the early 1980s by Don Henneke at Texas A&M University with the goal of creating a universal scale to assess horses' bodyweight, and was first published in 1983. It is a standardized system that can be used across all breeds without specialized equipment; condition is assessed visually and by palpation. Scores range from 1 to 9 with 1 being poor and 9 being extremely fat; the ideal range for most horses is from 4 to 6. The system is based on both visual appraisal and palpable fat cover of the six major points of the horse. The system is used by law-enforcement agencies as an objective method of scoring a horse's body condition in horse cruelty cases.
Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which the beta cells of the endocrine pancreas either stop producing insulin or can no longer produce it in enough quantity for the body's needs. The disease can affect humans as well as animals such as dogs.
A senior cat diet is generally considered to be a diet for cats that are mature, senior, or geriatric. Nutritional considerations arise when choosing an appropriate diet for a healthy senior cat. Dietary management of many conditions becomes more important in senior cats because changes in their physiology and metabolism may alter how their system responds to medications and treatments.
Oral health can be difficult for pet owners and veterinary teams to manage in cats, particularly for pets whose owners are not committed to regular tooth brushing and/or dental treats. Oral disease is common among cats, and may lead to other health issues such as bacterial infections of major organs including the heart, kidneys and liver. When pet owners are aware of the benefits of supporting good oral health in cats, this substantially improves positive outcomes. Dietary selection, along with at-home-dental-hygiene care, allows cat owners to influence the oral status of their pets.
Senior dog food diets are pet foods that are catered toward the senior or mature pet population. The senior dog population consists of dogs that are over the age of seven for most dog breeds, though in general large and giant breed dogs tend to reach this life stage earlier when compared to smaller breed dogs. Senior dog foods contain nutrients and characteristics that are used to improve the health of the aging dog. Aging in dogs causes many changes to occur physiologically that will require a change in nutrient composition of their diet. A major change that occurs is the decrease in energy requirements which is addressed by lowered caloric content of senior pet foods. Although energy requirements decrease, protein requirements increase as the dog ages. Senior dog foods include a higher protein content as well as highly digestible protein sources to deal with this. Nutrients included for joint and bone health include glucosamine, chondroitin, omega-3 fatty acids as well as two main minerals; calcium and phosphorus. Sources of fiber included in senior dog foods include beet pulp and flax seed as well as fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS). These act to increase gastrointestinal health. Brain and cognitive health decline as the dog ages which leads to the inclusion of vitamin E and L-carnitine in senior dog diets to combat this decline. Skin and coat health can also decline in older dogs due to various reasons. The inclusion of linoleic acid as well as vitamin A into senior dog diets helps to improve or maintain the skin and coat of senior dogs. Immune system health is important to maintain in older dogs to prevent the development of various diseases. By including omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, vitamin E, β-carotene as well as pre- and pro-biotics, the immune system can be boosted and maintained to help improve overall health.
Cats exposed to allergens may develop allergies or allergic reactions. Allergies tend to become evident and intensify over extended periods of time and can take years to develop. Some allergic diseases and allergies in cats include feline atopic dermatitis, flea allergy dermatitis, feline-mosquito hypersensitivity, and food-induced allergy. In the case of feline atopy, hypersensitivity to allergens is due to genetic predisposition. However, various allergies may arise due to environmental factors. Allergens, ingested, inhaled, or airborne, can be seasonal or non-seasonal, similar to allergies in humans. Suspected seasonal allergens include but are not limited to pollen, fleas, and mosquito bites; suspected non-seasonal allergens include but are not limited to plastic materials, food, dust, trees, and grass. After exposure to suspected allergens, symptoms may be immediate or delayed, arising within a few minutes to two hours. Symptoms can include both dermatological and gastrointestinal signs such as itchy skin, hair loss and excessive scratching. In cases of feline atopic dermatitis or atopy in cats, pruritic skin diseases may result; however, signs can also include miliary dermatitis, symmetrical alopecia, and lesions of the eosinophilic granuloma complex.
As in the human practice of veganism, vegan dog foods are those formulated with the exclusion of ingredients that contain or were processed with any part of an animal, or any animal byproduct. Vegan dog food may incorporate the use of fruits, vegetables, cereals, legumes including soya, nuts, vegetable oils, as well as any other non-animal based foods.
The horse body mass is highly variable, depending on breed, model, physiological state, condition, owner's purpose and usage of the animal. Always 65 % to 75 % water, it is divided on average between 50 % muscle, 11 % bone and 10 % fat. Depending on whether it's a pony or a draft horse, it can range from less than 200 kg to over a ton, with an average of 500 kg for saddle horses. It also differs with the season, as horses are almost always fatter in summer than in winter. Various tools are used to estimate their weight and body condition, and veterinary scales have been created to determine whether a horse has an ideal body mass according to precise criteria. Thinness is associated with mistreatment, but owner-independent factors such as age and illness can cause dramatic weight loss in horses. In Western countries, equine obesity is one of the major veterinary health problems of the 21st century. It is directly linked to numerous pathologies, such as laminitis, osteoarthritis, insulin resistance and colic. It also favors the development of equine Cushing's disease, and causes a drop in stallion fertility.
