Occupational science

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Occupational science is a discipline dedicated to the study of humans as "doers" or "occupational beings". As used here, the term "occupation" refers to the intentional or goal-directed activities that characterize daily human life as well as the characteristics and patterns of purposeful activity that occur over lifetimes. [1] [2]

Contents

History

Occupational science evolved as a loosely organized effort by many scholars in different disciplines to understand human time use. It was named and given additional impetus in 1989 by a team of faculty at the University of Southern California (USC) led by Dr. Elizabeth Yerxa, [3] who had been influenced by the work of graduate students under the supervision of Mary Reilly at the same university. [4] Since its formal beginning at that time, which coincided with the establishment of a Ph.D. program in Occupational Science at USC; occupational science has evolved as an additional source of research to expand empirical knowledge underlying the profession of occupational therapy. [5]

Occupational science was developed by scholars (mainly from the profession of occupational therapy) who drew from original ideas predating the founding of occupational therapy. It may thus be considered as a developing or emerging academic discipline. [6] [7] [8] [9] The substrates (or underlying dimensions) of occupation (form, function, and meaning) are difficult to observe and quantify, [10] and thus require and benefit from a multidisciplinary approach. While both occupational science and occupational therapy are rooted in systems theory and holistic views of human agency, the methods for observing and understanding an occupation's form (how something is done), function (its purpose), and meaning (how it is understood and experienced by the doer) are not always holistic in approach. For instance, disciplines such as biomechanics and psychology inform occupational science but, individually, are not necessarily concerned about how their explanations contribute to an integrated understanding of the factors collectively influencing a person's daily life. Professional practice in occupational therapy can prompt new ideas and spark potential research within the discipline of occupational science; although typically, knowledge from academic disciplines precedes the application of such knowledge in applied fields. [11] Occupational science has the capacity to provide insight into the primary modality of occupational therapy (occupation) through studying the consequences of participation in occupation and its therapeutic benefits. [12] Reciprocally, occupational therapy research may provide insights into how human agency and the factors influencing it change under conditions of illness, disability or therapeutic intervention. Additional viewpoints about these relationships may be found in documents describing relationships between occupational science and occupational therapy that have been published by the World Federation of Occupational Therapists (WFOT) and the Society for the Study of Occupation in the United States (SSO:USA). Research has been reported that begins to delineate key or essential concepts from occupational science as they pertain to the practice of occupational therapy. [13] Further refinement of this work may help focus research initiatives in occupational science to guide educators, scientists, and practitioners to advance the evidence-based use of occupation in occupational therapy practice.

Relationships between human occupation and health and well-being

Beyond the well-documented benefits of regular physical activity, [14] occupations that engender purpose, competence and self esteem may provide psychological benefits related to satisfying needs for meaning. [15] Living sitations that limit or restrict participation in meaningful occupations (such as geographic isolation, refugeeism or incarceration) [16] or lead to participation in harmful occupations, (such as substance abuse, deviant or risky behaviors), can lead to “illness, isolation and despair,” or even death. [7] However, participation in occupations shown to be beneficial or restorative can enhance health. Through participation in engaging or restorative occupations, the mental state of individuals can be improved and result in feelings of regeneration. Sleep, an area of occupation, not only regenerates physical and cognitive processes, but also is required for satisfactory occupational functioning. [17] Participating in other relaxing or tension-reducing occupations, such as (for example) reading a book, getting a massage, going for a walk, exercising, or pursuing an engaging hobby; may provide physical, cognitive and mental restoration, and stress reduction.

Empirical research linking the perceived psychological and physiological benefits of participation in different types of daily human occupation is ongoing. Questions about the nature of different dimensions of human occupation and their influences on human identity, behavior and states of being are viewed by occupational scientists as suitable areas of investigation. [18] [19] Developmental theorists have long hypothesized that the occupations of childhood and activity related events characteristic of different stages of adulthood are critical factors in physical, cognitive and psychological growth and maturation. [20] [21] [22]

Similarly, there is ongoing interest in how patterns of daily time use, including habits, routines, and lifestyles, may be related to states of well being. [23] [24] Adolf Meyer, a prominent early psychiatrist and advocate for occupational therapy in the United States, was among the first to speculate that a regular pattern, rhythm or flow of daily occupations contributed to mental health. [25] Meyer also postulated that the life history of his patients could be used to identify situational conditions and events that helped explain their disorders, thus providing an avenue for prevention through community interventions to promote public health (mental hygiene). [26]

Academic application

The development of occupational science as an academic discipline has been advanced through the creation of several university-based programs of study leading to undergraduate and graduate degrees in the field. Disciplines within which occupational scientists can be found include architecture, engineering, education, marketing, psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, occupational therapy, public health, and geography. There are several national, regional and international societies dedicated to promoting the evolution of this specialized area of human science. Academic journals containing content directly relevant to occupational science include the Journal of Occupational Science, OTJR: Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, Journal of Happiness Studies, 'Quality of Life Research, Applied Research in Quality of Life, Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, The Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, the American Journal of Occupational Therapy and various other occupational therapy journals.

See also

Related Research Articles

Occupational therapists (OTs) are health care professionals specializing in occupational therapy and occupational science. OTs and occupational therapy assistants (OTAs) use scientific bases and a holistic perspective to promote a person's ability to fulfill their daily routines and roles. OTs have training in the physical, psychological, and social aspects of human functioning deriving from an education grounded in anatomical and physiological concepts, and psychological perspectives. They enable individuals across the lifespan by optimizing their abilities to perform activities that are meaningful to them ("occupations"). Human occupations include activities of daily living, work/vocation, play, education, leisure, rest and sleep, and social participation.

Applied psychology is the use of psychological methods and findings of scientific psychology to solve practical problems of human and animal behavior and experience. Educational and organizational psychology, business management, law, health, product design, ergonomics, behavioural psychology, psychology of motivation, psychoanalysis, neuropsychology, psychiatry and mental health are just a few of the areas that have been influenced by the application of psychological principles and scientific findings. Some of the areas of applied psychology include counseling psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, engineering psychology, occupational health psychology, legal psychology, school psychology, sports psychology, community psychology, neuropsychology, medical psychology and clinical psychology, evolutionary psychology, human factors, forensic psychology and traffic psychology. In addition, a number of specialized areas in the general area of psychology have applied branches. However, the lines between sub-branch specializations and major applied psychology categories are often mixed or in some cases blurred. For example, a human factors psychologist might use a cognitive psychology theory. This could be described as human factor psychology or as applied cognitive psychology. When applied psychology is used in the treatment of behavioral disorders there are many experimental approaches to try and treat an individual. This type of psychology can be found in many of the subbranches in other fields of psychology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational therapy</span> Healthcare profession

Occupational therapy (OT) is a healthcare profession that involves the use of assessment and intervention to develop, recover, or maintain the meaningful activities, or occupations, of individuals, groups, or communities. The field of OT consists of health care practitioners trained and educated to improve mental and physical performance. Occupational therapists specialize in teaching, educating, and supporting participation in any activity that occupies an individual's time. It is an independent health profession sometimes categorized as an allied health profession and consists of occupational therapists (OTs) and occupational therapy assistants (OTAs). While OTs and OTAs have different roles, they both work with people who want to improve their mental and or physical health, disabilities, injuries, or impairments.

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) is a classification of the health components of functioning and disability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal-assisted therapy</span> Alternative or complementary type of therapy

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is an alternative or complementary type of therapy that includes the use of animals in a treatment. The goal of this animal-assisted intervention is to improve a patient's social, emotional, or cognitive functioning. Studies have documented some positive effects of the therapy on subjective self-rating scales and on objective physiological measures such as blood pressure and hormone levels.


Sensory integration therapy (SIT) was originally developed by occupational therapist A. Jean Ayres in the 1970s to help children with sensory-processing difficulties. It was specifically designed to treat Sensory Processing Disorder. Sensory Integration Therapy is based on A. Jean Ayres's Sensory Integration Theory, which proposes that sensory-processing is linked to emotional regulation, learning, behavior, and participation in daily life. Sensory integration is the process of organizing sensations from the body and from environmental stimuli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American Occupational Therapy Association</span> American professional association

The American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) is the national professional association established in 1917 to represent the interests and concerns of occupational therapy practitioners and students and improve the quality of occupational therapy services. AOTA membership is approximately 63,000 occupational therapists, occupational therapy assistants, and students.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anna Jean Ayres</span> American occupational therapist and educational psychologist

Anna Jean Ayres was an American occupational therapist, educational psychologist and advocate for individuals with special needs. She became known for her work on sensory integration (SI) theory.

This article discusses occupational therapy (OT) in the United Kingdom.

Occupational therapy is used to manage the issues caused by seasonal affective disorder (SAD). Occupational therapists assist with the management of SAD through the incorporation of a variety of healthcare disciplines into therapeutic practice. Potential patients with SAD are assessed, treated, and evaluated primarily using treatments such as drug therapies, light therapies, and psychological therapies. Therapists are often involved in designing an individualised treatment plan that most effectively meets the client's goals and needs around their responsiveness to a variety of treatments.

Vision rehabilitation is a term for a medical rehabilitation to improve vision or low vision. In other words, it is the process of restoring functional ability and improving quality of life and independence in an individual who has lost visual function through illness or injury. Most visual rehabilitation services are focused on low vision, which is a visual impairment that cannot be fully corrected by regular eyeglasses, contact lenses, medication, or surgery. Low vision interferes with the ability to perform everyday activities. Visual impairment is caused by factors including brain damage, vision loss, and others. Of the vision rehabilitation techniques available, most center on neurological and physical approaches.

Cultural humility is the “ability to maintain an interpersonal stance that is other-oriented in relation to aspects of cultural identity that are most important to the [person].” Cultural humility is different from other culturally-based training ideals because it focuses on self-humility rather than being an other-directed "they/them" way of achieving a state of knowledge or awareness. It is helpful to see as others see; what they themselves have determined is their personal expression of their heritage and their “personal culture”. Cultural humility was formed in the physical healthcare field and adapted for therapists, social workers, and medical librarians, to learn more about experiences and cultural identities of others and increase the quality of their interactions with clients and community members.

The Miller-Keane Encyclopedia & Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health is written for use by students and health care providers including medics, nurses, and paramedics. The entries are alphabetical and compiled with multidisciplinary collaboration. Illustrations and tables were included from the sixth edition. The latest edition is the seventh, which lists over 40,000 terms and was published in 2005.

Substance use disorders (SUD) can have a significant effect on one's function in all areas of occupation. Physical and psychosocial issues due to SUD can impact occupational performance. Unfulfilled life roles and disruption in meaningful activity can result from lack of structure or routine, poor motivation, limited skills, and poor social networks. These deficits may also contribute to stress, affecting the ability to cope with challenges. While SUD can affect a client's participation in therapy and ability to follow recommendations, occupational therapists are trained to facilitate occupational participation and performance.

Occupational injustice derives from the concept of occupational justice, which originated in 1997 with social scientists/ occupational therapists Ann Wilcock of Australia and Elizabeth Townsend of Canada. As a particular application of social justice, occupational injustice occurs when a person is denied, excluded from or deprived of opportunity to pursue meaningful occupations or when unchosen occupations are imposed upon them thus limiting life satisfaction. The construct of occupational rights stems from human rights but focuses on the inherent right of individuals to participate in occupations, construed as their personally meaningful and goal-directed use of time. Through this participation, occupational rights contribute to fulfillment and self-actualization. Groups of people that may be vulnerable to experiencing occupational injustices include cultural, religious, and ethnic minority groups, child labourers, the unemployed, prisoners, persons with substance use disorder, residents of institutions, refugees, and/or women.

The Box and Blocks Test is a functional test used in upper limb rehabilitation. The test is used to measure the gross manual dexterity of a patient, or of a person using an upper limb prosthetic device.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sensory processing disorder</span> Medical condition

Sensory processing disorder is a condition in which multisensory input is not adequately processed in order to provide appropriate responses to the demands of the environment. Sensory processing disorder is present in many people with dyspraxia, autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Individuals with SPD may inadequately process visual, auditory, olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), tactile (touch), vestibular (balance), proprioception, and interoception sensory stimuli.

Elnora M. Gilfoyle is a retired American occupational therapist, researcher, educator, and university administrator. She worked at several hospitals before accepting a professorship at Colorado State University, later serving as Dean of the College of Applied Human Sciences and Provost/Academic Vice President at that university. She is also a past president of the American Occupational Therapy Association. With research interests in child development, developmental disabilities, and child abuse, she has led studies on the state and federal levels. The co-author of two books and many articles, she was inducted into the Colorado Women's Hall of Fame in 1996.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weighted blanket</span> Type of blanket

A weighted blanket is a heavy blanket that is used to aid sleep and reduce anxiety. Initially, weighted blankets were most commonly used as therapeutic tools to assist individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), dementia, and mental health conditions. They have subsequently become a mass-market product. Scientific evidence for their efficacy is inconclusive, and experts assert that more research is needed to determine if weighted blankets actually lessen the impact of anxiety or insomnia.

Gary Wayne Kielhofner was an American social scientist and influential occupational therapy theorist who rose to prominence as a scholar during his time as Professor and Wade-Meyer Chair of the Department of Occupational Therapy at the University of Illinois at Chicago. He is best known for his conceptual practice model, which is known globally as The Model of Human Occupation (MOHO). The model was first published as a series of articles in The American Journal of Occupational Therapy by Kielhofner and others but later extensively developed over Kielhofner's career and disseminated in numerous books and articles. Kielhofner lectured widely and consulted regularly in the United States and abroad, particularly throughout Scandinavia, the United Kingdom,, Ireland, Italy, France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Japan, Hong Kong, Israel, and Central and South America. An active network of proponents across the international occupational therapy community continues to study and evolve his model through the MOHO Clearinghouse maintained at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC).

References

  1. ↑ Zemke, R. & Clark, F.(1996). Occupational Science: The evolving discipline. Philadelphia, F.A. Davis.
  2. ↑ Christiansen, C.H. & Townsend, E.A. (Eds) An introduction to occupation: The art and science of living.(2nd Ed).Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson
  3. ↑ Yerxa, E.; Clark, F.; Jackson, J.; Parham, D.; Pierce, D.; Stein, C.; et al. (1989). "An introduction to occupational science, A foundation for occupational therapy in the 21st century". Occupational Therapy in Health Care . 6 (4): 1–17. doi:10.1080/j003v06n04_04. PMID   23931133.
  4. ↑ Reilly, M (1962). "Occupational therapy can be one of the great ideas of 20th Century medicine". American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 16: 1–9. PMID   14491211.
  5. ↑ Hocking, C.; Wright-St Clair, V. (2011). "Occupational science: Adding value to occupational therapy". New Zealand Journal of Occupational Therapy. 58 (1): 29–35.
  6. ↑ Glover, J (2009). "The literature of occupational science: A systematic, quantitative examination of peer-reviewed publications from 1996-2006". Journal of Occupational Science. 16 (2): 92–103. doi:10.1080/14427591.2009.9686648. S2CID   144481077.
  7. 1 2 Wilcock, A (2005). "Occupational science: Bridging occupation and health". Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 72 (1): 5–12. doi:10.1177/000841740507200105. PMID   15727043. S2CID   28506513.
  8. ↑ Christiansen, C; Townsend, E (2009). Introduction to Occupation: The Art and Science of Living (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. pp. 359–384. ISBN   978-0131999428.
  9. ↑ Yerxa, E (1993). "Occupational Science: A new source of power for participants in occupational therapy". Journal of Occupational Science. 1 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1080/14427591.1993.9686373.
  10. ↑ Schell, B; Gillen, G (2019). Willard & Spackman's Occupational Therapy (13th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer. pp. 124–140. ISBN   9781975106584.
  11. ↑ Pierce, D (2014). Occupational Science for Occupational Therapy. Thorofare, NJ: Slack Inc. ISBN   9781556429330.
  12. ↑ Howell, D; Pierce, D (2000). "Exploring the forgotten restorative dimension of occupation: Quilting and quilt use". Journal of Occupational Science. 7 (2): 68–72. doi:10.1080/14427591.2000.9686467. S2CID   143897295.
  13. ↑ Backman, C; Christiansen, C; Hooper, B; Pierce, D; Price, P (2021). "Occupational science concepts essential to occupation-based practice: development of expert consensus". American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 75 (6): 7506205120. doi:10.5014/ajot.2021.049090. PMID   34817600. S2CID   244529438.
  14. ↑ Bize, R; Johnson, J; Plotnikoff, R (2007). "Physical activity level and health related quality of life in the general adult population: A systematic review". Preventive Medicine. 45 (6): 401–415. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.07.017. PMID   17707498.
  15. ↑ Baumeister, R; Wilson, B (1996). "Life stories and the four needs for meaning". Psychological Inquiry. 7 (4): 322–325. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0704_2.
  16. ↑ Whiteford, G (1997). "Occupational deprivation and incarceration". Journal of Occupational Science. 4 (3): 126–130. doi:10.1080/14427591.1997.9686429.
  17. ↑ Tester, N; Jackson, J (2017). "Sleep as an occupational need". Am J Occup Ther. 72 (1): 7201347010p1–7201347010p4. doi:10.5014/ajot.2018.020651. PMID   29280728. S2CID   3645061.
  18. ↑ Clark, F (1993). "Occupation embedded in real life: Interweaving occupational science and occupational therapy". Am J Occup Ther. 47 (12): 1067–1078. doi: 10.5014/ajot.47.12.1067 . PMID   8285206.
  19. ↑ Christiansen, C (1999). "Defining Lives: Occupation as identity: An essay on competence, coherence and the creation of meaning". Am J Occup Ther. 53 (6): 547–558. doi: 10.5014/ajot.53.6.547 . PMID   10578432.
  20. ↑ Piaget, J (2000). The Psychology of the Child. New York: Basic Books. ISBN   978-0465095001.
  21. ↑ Vygotsky, L; Cole, M (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Boston: Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0674576292.
  22. ↑ Erikson, E; Erikson, J (1998). The Life Cycle Completed. Norton. ISBN   978-0393317725.
  23. ↑ Matuska, K; Christiansen, C (2009). Life Balance: Multidisciplinary Theories and Research. Thorofare, NJ/Bethesda, MD: Slack/AOTA Press. ISBN   978-1556429064.
  24. ↑ Eklund, M; Orban, K; Argentzell, E; Bejerholm, U; Tjornstrand, C; Erlandsson, L-K; Hakansson, C (2017). "The linkage between patterns of daily occupations and occupational balance: Applications within occupational science and occupational therapy practice". Scand J Occup Ther. 1 (24): 41–56. doi: 10.1080/11038128.2016.1224271 . PMID   27575654.
  25. ↑ Christiansen, C (2007). "Adolf Meyer Revisited: Connections between lifestyles, resilience and illness". Journal of Occupational Science. 14 (2): 63–76. doi:10.1080/14427591.2007.9686586. S2CID   143957625.
  26. ↑ Dreyer, B (1976). "Adolf Meyer and Mental Hygiene: An ideal for Public Health". American Journal of Public Health. 66 (10): 998–1003. doi:10.2105/AJPH.66.10.998. PMC   1653447 . PMID   788532.
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