Opoku Fofie, born around 1775 and died in March 1804, was the sixth asantehene (monarch) of the Ashanti Empire, belonging to the dynastic house of Opoku Ware of the Oyoko clan. The youngest son of the asantehemaa (queen mother) Konadu Yaadom and Adu Twum Kaakyire, he acceded to the throne by the principle of dynastic alternation in force since the founding of the empire, after the crisis that opposed his mother to her predecessor Osei Kwame from 1797 to 1803.
The removal of Osei Kwame, followed by Barnabu's battle against his armed Muslim supporters in the tributary states of Gyaman and Kong, paved the way for his accession to the throne. His reign began in December 1803, coinciding with the ritual suicide of his predecessor, and lasted no more than sixty days. This situation gave rise to the myth of Osei Kwame's vengeful spirit (saman). Osei Bonsu succeeded him in 1804.
Official versions of Ashanti genealogy differ greatly from historical research, due to the numerous genealogical modifications aimed at erasing the existence of Akyaama in the lineage. Indeed, the asantehemaa are the guarantors of tradition, official genealogy, and succession to the asantehene throne. This conflict is at the root of the many divergences.
Biography
Dynastic context
Opoku Fofie, born around 1775,[1] was the second son of the asantehemaa (queen mother) Konadu Yaadom and Adu Twum Kaakyire, son of Opoku Ware I, asantehene from 1718 to 1750.[2] Consequently, he belongs to the Bosommuru ntoro (patrilineal dynasty) of Opoku Ware of the Oyoko clan[3] and his accession to the throne respects the principle of dynastic alternation of the asantehene of the Ashanti Empire.[2]
During the reign of Osei Kwame (1777-1801), a major dynastic conflict pitted the asantehene against the queen-mother Konadu Yaadom. This conflict arose from the banishment of Akyaama, mother of Osei Kwame and previous asantehemaa, and the genealogical changes made by Konadu Yaadom.[4][5] The latter adopted the children of the deposed queen to preserve their right of succession and erase the memory of her predecessor from the collective memory.[6] Akyaama's exile led to a succession of other disqualifications and maneuvers designed to keep her future descendants from the Golden Throne.[4]
In the 1790s, following these rewritings of the royal lineage, Opoku Kwame, Opoku Fofie's eldest brother, was named heir to the throne.[7][8] Although this agreement eased the conflict between the two dynasties, Opoku Kwame died under suspicious circumstances in 1797.[9] Konadu Yaadom accused the younger Osei Kwame of poisoning his elder son. After an attempt on his life, the asantehemaa fled the capital Kumasi to take refuge in Kokofu with his son Opoku Fofie.[7][10] Under the prerogatives befitting her office, she appointed the latter as the new legitimate heir to the throne.[9]
Ephemeral reign
Partial map of the Gold Coast with the delimitation of the Ashanti Empire in the early 19th century. To the west, the kingdom of Gyaman (Gaman), and to the north-west Kong.
In 1801, Konadu Yaadom ordered the removal of Osei Kwame, but the latter fled to Juaben and planned to continue exercising power there in his own right.[7] The Muslims of Gyaman and Kong, to whom he is close, rise to demand his restoration to the throne. Opoku Fofie, who governs from Kumasi as his heir, learns that Muslim armies are heading his way. To counter this, he won broad support from the districts surrounding Kumasi, as well as from the Akan tributary states of Banda, Takyiman, and Nkoransa.[11] He created a new fekuw (company) made up of Muslim military units loyal to him, to reinforce the Ankobea (institution of the Empire's army).[12]
Faced with the risk of civil war, Osei Kwame agreed to surrender in 1803.[13] The rebel armies supporting him nevertheless continued to advance on Kumasi.[11] The confrontation took place at Barnabou, near the village of Boabeng, 15km northeast of Techiman. Opoku Fofie won the battle and took several thousand prisoners, including around 5,000 Muslims. None of them were executed in human sacrifice or sold into slavery, as they either repurchased their freedom or were ransomed by neighboring Muslim states.[11] According to Ivor Wilks, Opoku Fofie coordinated the fifteen-month military campaign and did not accede to the Ashanti royal throne until the battle was over, in December 1803.[11]
It was also in December 1803 that Osei Kwame committed suicide.[14] According to Thomas McCaskie, Opoku Fofie's accession to the throne took place either on December 5/12, 1803, or January 16/23, 1804. However, given that more than half the “royals”[note 1] of the Oyoko clan attended his enthronement, while the other half attended Osei Kwame's funeral, he concludes that these events took place in the immediate vicinity. Because of the periods of homage scheduled in Ashanti tradition for these two events, he favors the two possible dates in December 1803.[15]
Opoku Fofie's reign came to an abrupt end sixty days after his coronation, following his sudden death.[15] In 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich reported that Opoku Fofie reigned for only a few weeks. Colonial archives note that news of his death reached the European governors of the Gold Coast in March 1804.[15] In the official Ashanti version, his death is dated 1799, to respect the revised genealogical order. However, Ivor Wilks' research, combined with contemporary documents, confirms that the end of his reign was before or during March 1804.[16]
Posterity
Black throne
According to Ashanti tradition, the funeral of an asantehene is accompanied by the blackening of his throne. This is then called akonwa tuntum (black throne) and joins the house of thrones, a mausoleum dedicated to the asantehene.[17] Although the Ashanti say that the throne is coated with human blood, it is a mixture of soot, egg yolk, and sheep's blood.[18][note 2][19] Given the context of the end of Osei Kwame's reign, no black throne was dedicated to him, meaning that his funeral rites were not fully completed. Conversely, Opoku Fofie did have one, despite his short-lived reign.[20]
Symbolism
Wizards play a key role in Ashanti witchcraft rituals.
Despite his brief reign, Opoku Fofie left a strong imprint on Ashanti's oral tradition and cultural heritage. This is due to several factors: a turbulent dynastic context, the proximity between Opoku Fofie's enthronement and Osei Kwame's funeral, and his sudden and imminent death.[15]
Ashantis believes that Opoku Fofie was killed by the saman (ghost) of his predecessor for having slept with Firempomaa Tanowaa, one of his favorites, before the end of his funeral.[2][15] Opoku Fofie's death was seen as a further consequence of the conflict between the yafunu (a dynastic branch from the same matrix) members of Akyaama and those of Konadu Yaadom, so much so that the latter's death was also attributed to the ghost of Osei Kwame.[21] In 1820, Joseph Dupuis reported the causes presented by oral tradition, evoking witchcraft, and also spoke of a chronic illness that took his life.[22]
The symbolism of this story links the incompleteness of the funeral rituals granted to Osei Kwame to the premature death of his successor. Indeed, the immediate proximity of the coronation of a new asantehene and the burial of the old one is unconventional in Ashanti tradition, where funeral rituals are supposed to be completed beforehand.[15]
Consequences
According to the rule of succession, the Osei Tutu house is to succeed. The three candidates, Osei Kofi, Osei Bonsu, and Osei Badu, are all children of Konadu Yaadom, who married Owusu Ansah, son of Osei Kwadwo. Osei Bonsu succeeded to the throne, confirming the principle of dynastic rotation and strengthening the influence of the asantehemaa. Thanks to genealogical modifications, she succeeded in completing Akyaama's dynastic erasure.[23][24] To resolve dynastic conflicts, Osei Bonsu decreed a new law whereby the asantehene's sons and grandsons became heirs presumptive to the royal throne.[20]
Opoku Fofie's short-lived reign also weakened cohesion between the states of the Ashanti Empire by strengthening active rebel forces. This period benefited the Gyaman in particular, who attacked the smaller surrounding states that were allies of the Empire. Other tributary states also stopped paying tribute. The situation in the region did not calm down until after 1819.[25]
The causes of death potentially linked to witchcraft are so deeply rooted in Ashanti oral tradition and culture that they are responsible for the emergence of three anti-witchcraft cults between 1879 and 1920. Indeed, the attribution of Opoku Fofie's death to witchcraft echoes the growing interest in witchcraft since the late eighteenth century.[26]
Opoku Ware II, a direct descendant of Opoku Fofie, is the 15th asantehene (1970-1999).
Among Opoku Fofie's siblings are two other asantehene: Osei Bonsu and Osei Yaw Akoto. The official version of the royal genealogy also includes Osei Kwame.[27] No mention is made of Akyaama, who reigned before Konadu Yaadom. Konadu Yaadom made genealogical changes to transfer the matrilineality of the asantehemaa's children to her lineage.[1]
Despite his short reign, Opoku Fofie also fathered several children: Kwame Akyamfo became Apesamakohene (chief of Apesamako), and Adusei Kra became Akotenhene (chief of Akoten).[28] Opoku Ware II is a direct descendant of Opoku Ware I as he comes from a younger line of Opoku Fofie.[29]
There are two opposing genealogical versions. The one established by historians and the one established by the official Ashanti genealogy. Modifications to the official version were at the heart of numerous conflicts and the creation of a new dynastic branch by Kwaku Dua I. These tensions were resolved with the return of dynastic rotation on the accession of Opoku Ware II.[4][5]
The family tree below shows the difference between the official genealogy, which deletes Akyaama, and that revised by the research of Iron Wilks and Gérard Pescheux.[4][5]
Osei Bonsu also known as Osei Tutu Kwame was the Asantehene. He reigned either from 1800 to 1824 or from 1804 to 1824. During his reign as the king, the Ashanti fought the Fante confederation and ended up dominating Gold Coast trade. In Akan, Bonsu means whale, and is symbolic of his achievement of extending the Ashanti Empire to the coast. He died in Kumasi, and was succeeded by Osei Yaw Akoto.
Kwaku Dua Panin was the eighth Asantehene of the Ashanti Empire from 25 August 1834 until his death.
Kusi Obodom was the 3rd Asantehene of the Ashanti Empire from 1750 to 1764. He was elected as the successor to Opoku Ware I as opposed to the nominee suggested by Opoku Ware I. Obodom's reign was inaugurated with a civil war in response to his election until stability ensued by 1751.
Osei Kwame Panyin was the ruler of the Ashanti Empire from 1777 to 1801, holding the title of Asantehene. His reign was marred by uprisings, which would eventually lead to his suicide in 1803 to prevent an Ashanti civil war.
Opoku Ware I was the 2nd Asantehene of Oyoko heritage, who ruled the Ashanti Empire. Between 1718 and 1722, Opoku Ware became Asantehene during a period of civil disorder after the death of the 1st Asanthene. From 1720 to 1721, Opoku established his power.
Osei Kwadwo was the 4th Asantehene of the Ashanti Empire who reigned from 1764 to 1777. Osei Kwadwo was elected in replacement of Kusi Obodom who was removed out of power.
The Asante Empire, also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of Ivory Coast and Togo. Due to the empire's military prowess, wealth, architecture, sophisticated hierarchy and culture, the Asante Empire has been extensively studied and has more historic records written by European, primarily British, authors than any other indigenous culture of sub-Saharan Africa.
Otumfuo Opoku Ware II was the 15th Asantehene. He succeeded his uncle Osei Tutu Agyeman Prempeh II on 27 July 1970. He ruled for 29 years until his death in February 1999. He was succeeded by Otumfuo Nana Osei Tutu II.
Juaben is a small town in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipal District, a district in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.
An Akrafena is an Akan sword, originally meant for warfare but also forming part of Akan heraldry. The foremost example of an akrafena is the Mponponsuo, which belonged to Opoku Ware II. It has survived to the present day because it is still occasionally used in ceremonies, such as the Akwasidae Festival.
Nana Afia Kobi Serwaa Ampem II was the Queen mother (Ohemaa) of the Ashanti Kingdom and mother of the current Asantehene, Otumfuo Nana Osei Tutu II, who is the youngest son of her five children. She was the 13th Queen mother of the Ashanti Kingdom.
Afua Kobi was an Asantehemaa of the Ashanti Empire.
Adoma Akosua was the fifth Asantehemaa of the Ashanti kingdom in West Africa. Born in about 1773 into the Oyoko clan, where the kingdom's rulers are traditionally chosen, she came from a branch that had been banished and excluded from the succession. In 1807, due to a lack of male heirs in the other lineages, the clan ended its exile; Adoma and her relatives were once again allowed to reside in the capital. In 1809, she ascended to the throne of Asantehemaa, Queen Mother. From 1817, she conspired to overthrow the king, who had departed on a military campaign against the Gyaman.
The history of Kumasi dates to the late 17th century when it emerged as the capital of the Ashanti Empire. Although various oral sources differ on the origin of Kumasi, majority agree it emerged as the capital of Ashanti under Osei Kofi Tutu I in the late 17th century. In the early 18th century, Kumasi was invaded and sacked by the Aowin but the invasion was curbed by Asantehene Opoku Ware I. 19th century written accounts by European visitors described the neatness and sophistication of the city. The population of Kumasi under the Ashanti Empire varies per source. The city was ransacked by the British Empire in 1874 during the Anglo-Ashanti Wars. A Civil war occurred within the 1880s which led to further decline of Kumasi. Another British invasion of the city occurred within 1895—1896 as Kumasi was left in ruins.
Konadu Yaadom, also Kwadu Yaadom was the fourth Asantehemaa of the Ashanti Empire, whose multiple marriages and spiritual influence meant that she became an important and powerful ruler in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Oheneba is a regal rank given to both female or male child of a king or chief. It is the equivalent of prince or princess.
The Economy of the Asante Empire was largely a pre-industrial and agrarian economy. The Asante established different procedures for mobilizing state revenue and utilizing public finance. Asante trade extended upon two main trade routes; one at the North and the other at the South. The Northern trade route was dominated by the trade in Kola nuts and at the South, the Asante engaged in the Atlantic Slave Trade. A variety of economic industries such as cloth-weaving and metal working industries existed. The Asante originally farmed in subsistence until agriculture became extensive during the 19th century.
The Aban was a stone structure that served as a palace for the Asantehene and played the other function of displaying his craft collection. It was constructed in 1822 as a project of Asantehene Osei Bonsu, with the stones and labor provided by the Dutch at Elmina. The palace was destroyed in 1874 during the British invasion and its remains were used to construct a British fort in the late 19th century.
The Asantehemaa is the queen mother according to West African custom, who rules the Asante people alongside the Asantehene. African queen mothers generally play an important role in local government; they exercise both political and social power. Their power and influence have declined considerably since pre-colonial times, but still persist in the 21st century.
↑ Term used in scientific literature (Wilks, McCaskie, Pescheux, ...) to designate any member of the Ashanti aristocracy with a title of nobility is named royal without actually being part of the Asantehene royal dynasty. They each belong to their royal dynasty.
↑ Several recipes exist for the bath in which the throne is soaked to commemorate the ancestors. Sacrifices or blood collected from humans are sometimes mentioned, but more generally blood from animals is used.
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