Pacifier

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Pacifier types
Pacifier for newborn, 2015-08-03.jpg
Multiple piece pacifier (blue)
Pacifier for newborn, 2015-07-12.jpg
Single piece pacifier (pink)

A pacifier is a rubber, plastic, or silicone nipple substitute given to an infant or toddler to suckle on between feedings to quiet their distress by satisfying the need to suck when they do not need to eat. Pacifiers normally have three parts: an elongated teat, a handle, and a mouth shield that prevents the child from swallowing or choking on it.

Contents

Pacifiers have many informal names: binky or nookie (American English), dummy (Australian and British English), dokey (informal Scots), soother (Canadian English), and dodie (Hiberno-English [1] ).

History

Baby comforter design, 1900 Baby Comforter 1900.jpg
Baby comforter design, 1900

In England in the 17th–19th centuries, a "coral" was a teething toy made of coral, ivory or bone, often mounted in silver as the handle of a rattle. [2] [ failed verification ] A museum curator[ who? ] has suggested that these substances were used as "sympathetic magic" [3] [ failed verification ] and that the animal bone could symbolize animal strength to help the child cope with pain.

Pacifiers were a development of hard teething rings, but they were also a substitute for the softer sugar tits , sugar-teats, or sugar-rags [4] which had been in use in 19th century America. A writer in 1873 described a "sugar-teat" made from "a small piece of old linen" with a "spoonful of rather sandy sugar in the center of it", "gathered ... up into a little ball" with a thread tied tightly around it. [5] Rags with foodstuffs tied inside were also given to babies in many parts of Northern Europe and elsewhere. In some places a lump of meat or fat was tied in cloth, and sometimes the rag was moistened with brandy. German-speaking areas might use Lutschbeutel, cloth wrapped around sweetened bread or poppy-seeds.

Albrecht Durer, Madonna with the Siskin, 1506 Madonna with the Siskin by Albrecht Durer - Gemaldegalerie - Berlin - Germany 2017.jpg
Albrecht Dürer, Madonna with the Siskin, 1506
Albrecht Durer, Madonna with the Siskin detail, 1506 Madonna and Siskin detail.jpg
Albrecht Dürer, Madonna with the Siskin detail, 1506

A Madonna and child painted by Dürer in 1506 [6] shows one of these tied-cloth "pacifiers" in the baby's hand.

Pacifiers were settling into their modern form around 1900 when the first teat, shield and handle design was patented in the US as a "baby comforter" by Manhattan pharmacist Christian W. Meinecke. [7] Rubber had been used in flexible teethers sold as "elastic gum rings" for British babies in the mid-19th century, [8] and also used for feeding-bottle teats. In 1902, Sears, Roebuck & Co. advertised a "new style rubber teething ring, with one hard and one soft nipple". [8] In 1909, someone calling herself "Auntie Pacifier" wrote to the New York Times to warn of the "menace to health" (she meant dental health) of "the persistent, and, among poorer classes, the universal sucking of a rubber nipple sold as a 'pacifier'". [9] In England too, dummies were seen as something the poorer classes would use, and associated with poor hygiene. In 1914, a London doctor complained about "the dummy teat": "If it falls on the floor it is rubbed momentarily on the mother's blouse or apron, lipped by the mother and replaced in the baby's mouth." [10]

Early pacifiers were manufactured with a choice of black, maroon or white rubber, though the white rubber of the day contained a certain amount of lead. Binky (with a y) was first used in about 1935 as a trademarked brand name for pacifiers and other baby products manufactured by the Binky Baby Products Company of New York. The brand trademark is owned by Playtex in the U.S. (and other countries). [11] [ not specific enough to verify ]

Drawbacks

Infants may use a pacifier, their fingers or thumb to soothe themselves. BabySuckingFingers.jpg
Infants may use a pacifier, their fingers or thumb to soothe themselves.

There are negative effects from using a pacifier during breastfeeding for healthy babies. The AAP suggests avoiding pacifiers for the first month. Introducing a pacifier can lead to the infant ineffectively sucking at the breast and causing "nipple confusion". Babies will take their suck out on the pacifier instead of nursing or comfort nursing at the breast which is good for the mother's supply. Evidence in premature infants or infants that are not healthy is lacking but shows that it can have benefits. [12] It may have clinical benefits for preterm babies, such as helping them progress from tube to bottle feeding. [13]

Infants who use pacifiers may have more ear infections (otitis media). [14] The effectiveness of avoiding the use of a pacifier to prevent ear infections is not known. [15]

Although it is commonly believed that using a pacifier will lead to dental problems, it does not appear to lead to long-term damage if used for less than around three years. [14] However, prolonged use of a pacifier or other non-nutritive sucking habit (such as finger or blanket sucking) has been found to lead to malocclusion of the teeth, that is teeth sticking out or not meeting properly when they bite together. [16] [17] This is a common problem and the dental (orthodontic) treatment to correct it can take a long time and can be expensive. A Cochrane Review of the evidence found that orthodontic braces or psychological intervention (such as positive or negative reinforcement) were effective in helping children stop sucking habits where that was necessary. [18] An orthodontic brace that used a palatal crib design seems to have been more effective than a palatal arch design.[ clarification needed ]

There appears to be no strong evidence that using a pacifier delays speech development by preventing babies from practicing their speaking skills. [14]

Benefits

The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry's (AAPD) policy on pacifier use in the first months of life is to support the parental decision. [19] Pacifier use is associated with a lower risk of developing a habit of finger sucking. [19] The messaging from the AAPD is that prolonged use of a pacifier after 1 year of age can increase the risk of otitis media and use of a pacifier after 1.5 years (18 months) can have a negative effect on the development of the baby's orofacial complex that can lead to bite and cross bite problems. [19]

There is some evidence that pacifiers can decrease the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). [20] The researchers are divided over whether this association is sufficient reason to prefer pacifier use. Some argue that pacifiers should be recommended on the strength of an association, just as back sleeping was recommended on the strength of an association. [21] [22] Others argue that the association is not strong enough or that the mechanism is unclear. [23]

Pacifiers can help premature infants as they develop their reflexes including the sucking reflex. [19]

Pacifiers can also provide comfort and some amount of pain-reliever effect if an infants requires a minor procedure. Pacifiers have also been found to reduce infants' crying during painful procedures such as venipuncture. [24] [25]

Researchers in Brazil have shown that neither "orthodontic" nor standard pacifiers prevent dental problems if children continue sucking past the age of three years. [26]

It is commonly reported anecdotally that pacifier use among stimulant users helps reduce bruxism and thus prevents tooth damage.[ citation needed ] It is also known to help infants and toddlers to get to sleep and also keeps infants and toddlers calm.[ citation needed ]

Medical policies

The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry's "Policy on Thumb, Finger and Pacifier Habits" says: "Most children stop sucking on thumbs, pacifiers or other objects on their own between 2 and 4 years of age. However, some children continue these habits over long periods of time. In these children, the upper front teeth may tip toward the lip or not come in properly. Frequent or intense habits over a prolonged period of time can affect the way the child's teeth bite together, as well as the growth of the jaws and bones that support the teeth." [27]

A study of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) states that "It seems appropriate to stop discouraging the use of pacifiers." The authors recommend the use of pacifiers at nap time and bedtime throughout the first year of life. For breastfeeding mothers, the authors suggest waiting until breastfeeding is well established, typically for several weeks, before introducing the pacifier. [28]

The British Oral Health Foundation recommends: "If you can, avoid using a dummy, soother or pacifier and discourage thumb sucking. These can both eventually cause problems with how the teeth grow and develop. And this may need treatment with a brace when the child gets older." [29]

Prevalence of attachments to pacifiers and their psychological functions

In the late 1960s researchers dispelled the notion that pacifiers were psychologically unhealthy and aberrant. Richard H. Passman and Jane S. Halonen at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee traced the developmental course of attachments to pacifiers and provided norms. [30] They found that 66% of their sample of babies who were three months old in the United States demonstrated at least some attachment, according to their mothers. At six months of age, this incidence was 40%, and at nine months it was 44%. Thereafter, the rate of attachment to pacifiers dropped precipitously until, at 24 months of age and later, it was quite rare.

These researchers also provided experimental support for what were then only anecdotal observations that pacifiers do indeed pacify babies. [31] In an unfamiliar playroom, one-year-old toddlers accompanied by their pacifier evidenced more play and demonstrated less distress than did babies without them. The investigators concluded that pacifiers should be considered to be attachment objects, similar to other security objects like blankets.

Passman and Halonen [30] contended that the widespread occurrence of attachments to pacifiers as well as their importance as security objects should reassure parents that they are a normal part of development for a majority of infants and toddlers.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SIDS</span> Sudden unexplained death of a child who is less than one year of age

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), sometimes known as cot death or crib death, is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of age. Diagnosis requires that the death remain unexplained even after a thorough autopsy and detailed death scene investigation. SIDS usually occurs during sleep. Typically death occurs between the hours of midnight and 9:00a.m. There is usually no noise or evidence of struggle. SIDS remains the leading cause of infant mortality in Western countries, constituting half of all post-neonatal deaths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infant</span> Very young offspring of humans

In common terminology, a baby is the very young offspring of human beings, while infant is a formal or specialised synonym. The terms may also be used to refer to juveniles of other organisms. A newborn is, in colloquial use, a baby who is only hours, days, or weeks old; while in medical contexts, a newborn or neonate is an infant in the first 28 days after birth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baby bottle</span> Bottle containing liquid (usually milk or formula) to nourish infant

A baby bottle, nursing bottle, or feeding bottle is a bottle with a teat attached to it, which creates the ability to drink via suckling. It is typically used by infants and young children, or if someone cannot drink from a cup, for feeding oneself or being fed. It can also be used to feed non-human mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teething</span> Infants gaining their first teeth

Teething is the process by which an infant's first teeth appear by emerging through the gums, typically arriving in pairs. The mandibular central incisors are the first primary teeth to erupt, usually between 6 and 10 months of age and usually causes discomfort and pain to the infant. It can take several years for all 20 teeth to complete the tooth eruption. Though the process of teething is sometimes referred to as "cutting teeth", when teeth emerge through the gums they do not cut through the flesh. Instead, hormones are released within the body that cause some cells in the gums to die and separate, allowing the teeth to come through.

A comfort object, more formally a transitional object or attachment object, is an item used to provide psychological comfort, especially in unusual or unique situations, or at bedtime for children. Among toddlers, a comfort object often takes the form of a blanket or a stuffed animal, doll or other toy, and may be referred to by a nickname such as blankie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prognathism</span> Protrusion of the upper or lower human jaw

Prognathism is a positional relationship of the mandible or maxilla to the skeletal base where either of the jaws protrudes beyond a predetermined imaginary line in the coronal plane of the skull.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malocclusion</span> Misalignment between upper and lower teeth as the jaws close

In orthodontics, a malocclusion is a misalignment or incorrect relation between the teeth of the upper and lower dental arches when they approach each other as the jaws close. The English-language term dates from 1864; Edward Angle (1855–1930), the "father of modern orthodontics", popularised it. The word derives from mal- 'incorrect' and occlusion 'the manner in which opposing teeth meet'.

Tongue thrust, also called reverse swallow or immature swallow, is a pseudo-pathological name for an adaptive lip seal mechanism, whereby normal nasal breathing or normal swallowing can occur. Tongue thrust can also be seen as an oral myofunctional disorder, a tongue muscle pattern that is perceived as clinically abnormal, in which the tongue protrudes anteriorly to seal the otherwise incompetent lips.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haberman Feeder</span> Specialty baby bottle

The Haberman Feeder is a speciality bottle named after its inventor Mandy Haberman for babies with impaired sucking ability. The design of the feeder is to simulate breastfeeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teether</span> Toy for teething babies to chew on

A teether, teething toy, or chew toy is a device given to teething infants. It has the effect of reducing the pain of irritable wisdom teeth. Most modern teethers are silicone, but can also be made of wood or rubber. Some teethers are filled with a fluid or gel that can be frozen or refrigerated. They differ from pacifiers in that they are intended to be chewed, rather than sucked on. They come in a variety of different shapes. Teethers may help relieve teething pain and help new teeth penetrate the gum, as well as provide a form of entertainment. Studies found that chewing a teether may make teething children calmer and happier, less stressed, and less cranky. Teething necklaces and teething bracelets may pose a choking hazard to infants and toddlers depending on the teething parts, and have prompted recalls. Teethers filled with liquid have also been recalled because of bacterial contamination. Early teethers were often teething rings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thumb sucking</span> Behavior where a person uses their mouth to suck on their thumb

Thumb sucking is a behavior found in humans, chimpanzees, captive ring-tailed lemurs, and other primates. It usually involves placing the thumb into the mouth and rhythmically repeating sucking contact for a prolonged duration. It can also be accomplished with any organ within reach and is considered to be soothing and therapeutic for the person. As a child develops the habit, it will usually develop a "favourite" finger to suck on.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding difficulties</span> Medical condition

Breastfeeding difficulties refers to problems that arise from breastfeeding, the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a woman's breasts. Although babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk, and human breast milk is usually the best source of nourishment for human infants, there are circumstances under which breastfeeding can be problematic, or even in rare instances, contraindicated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crossbite</span> Left-right misalignment of upper and lower teeth

In dentistry, crossbite is a form of malocclusion where a tooth has a more buccal or lingual position than its corresponding antagonist tooth in the upper or lower dental arch. In other words, crossbite is a lateral misalignment of the dental arches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding</span> Feeding of babies or young children with milk from a womans breast

Breastfeeding, also known as nursing, is the process where breast milk is fed to a child. Breast milk may be from the breast, or may be pumped and fed to the infant. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that breastfeeding begin within the first hour of a baby's birth and continue as the baby wants. Health organizations, including the WHO, recommend breastfeeding exclusively for six months. This means that no other foods or drinks, other than vitamin D, are typically given. The WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, followed by continued breastfeeding with appropriate complementary foods for up to 2 years and beyond. Of the 135 million babies born every year, only 42% are breastfed within the first hour of life, only 38% of mothers practice exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months, and 58% of mothers continue breastfeeding up to the age of two years and beyond.

PAL: Pacifier Activated Lullaby is a pacifier fitted with an adapter, which houses a computer chip that activates a CD player outside the incubator. Developed in 2000 by Dr. Jayne M. Standley along with the Center for Music Research at Florida State University, the PAL is used during music therapy interventions in the neonatal intensive-care unit to promote and reinforce non-nutritive sucking (NNS) opportunities on premature infants. Dr. Standley found that infants could differentiate between silence and musical stimuli, which meant infants could be positively reinforced with music when they sucked with enough endurance and strength.

Dentistry for babies is a branch of pediatric dentistry provided to children from birth to around 36 months of age, aiming to maintain or re-establish a good oral health status and create a positive attitude in parents and children about dentistry. Although concerns about dental treatment directed to babies have been reported at the beginning of the twentieth century, only recently has the dental community started to focus on this area of dentistry, due to the high dental caries (decay) prevalence observed in young children.

Infant feeding is the practice of feeding infants. Breast milk provides the best nutrition when compared to infant formula. Infants are usually introduced to solid foods at around four to six months of age.

Open bite is a type of orthodontic malocclusion which has been estimated to occur in 0.6% of the people in the United States. This type of malocclusion has no vertical overlap or contact between the anterior incisors. The term "open bite" was coined by Carevelli in 1842 as a distinct classification of malocclusion. Different authors have described the open bite in a variety of ways. Some authors have suggested that open bite often arises when overbite is less than the usual amount. Additionally, others have contended that open bite is identified by end-on incisal relationships. Lastly, some researchers have stated that a lack of incisal contact must be present to diagnose an open bite.

Infant and toddler safety are those actions and modifications put into place to keep babies and toddlers safe from accidental injury and death. Many accidents, injuries and deaths are preventable.

Nipple confusion is the tendency of an infant to unsuccessfully adapt between breast-feeding and bottle-feeding. It can happen when the infant is put back onto breast-feeding. Nipple confusion can turn into nipple refusal in which the infant refuses both the bottle and breastfeeding.

References

  1. ↑ Bough, Alison. "6 tips to get rid of the soother once and for all". HerFamily.
  2. ↑ OED ; Examples from the Metropolitan
  3. ↑ Victoria & Albert Museum of Childhood. Vam.ac.uk. Retrieved on 2013-04-14.
  4. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary
  5. ↑ Jamieson, Cecilia Viets (1873). "Chapter 2: Top's Baby". Ropes of Sand. p. 11. Retrieved 2023-03-21– via Internet Archive.
  6. ↑ "Madonna and Siskin". Web Gallery of Art. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  7. ↑ Design Patent number D33,212, C. W. Meinecke, September 18, 1900
  8. 1 2 "The history of the feeding bottle". Baby Bottle Museum.
  9. ↑ Auntie Pacifier (July 2, 1909) "The 'Pacifier' a Menace to Health". The New York Times.
  10. ↑ "The Dummy Teat" (PDF). The British Journal of Nursing Supplement: The Midwife: 123. 7 August 1915.
  11. ↑ According to trademark registration documents 1948. Uspto.gov. Retrieved on 2013-04-14.
  12. ↑ Jaafar, Sharifah Halimah; Ho, Jacqueline J.; Jahanfar, Shayesteh; Angolkar, Mubashir (2016-08-30). "Effect of restricted pacifier use in breastfeeding term infants for increasing duration of breastfeeding". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (8): CD007202. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007202.pub4. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   8520760 . PMID   27572944.
  13. ↑ Foster, Jann P.; Psaila, Kim; Patterson, Tiffany (2016-10-04). "Non-nutritive sucking for increasing physiologic stability and nutrition in preterm infants". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 10 (3): CD001071. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001071.pub3. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   6458048 . PMID   27699765.
  14. 1 2 3 Nelson, AM (December 2012). "A comprehensive review of evidence and current recommendations related to pacifier usage". Journal of Pediatric Nursing. 27 (6): 690–9. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2012.01.004. PMID   22342261.
  15. ↑ Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health (IQWiG). "Middle ear infections: prevention". Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health (IQWiG). Retrieved 4 June 2013.
  16. ↑ Vázquez-Nava F, Quezada-Castillo JA, Oviedo-Treviño S, et al. (2006). "Association between allergic rhinitis, bottle feeding, non-nutritive sucking habits, and malocclusion in the primary dentition". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91 (10): 836–840. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.088484. PMC   2066013 . PMID   16769710.
  17. ↑ Paroo Mistry; Moles David R; O'Neill Julian; Noar Joseph (2010). "The occlusal effects of digit sucking habits amongst school children in Northamptonshire (UK)". Journal of Orthodontics. 37 (2): 87–92. doi:10.1179/14653121042939. PMID   20567031. S2CID   5519168.
  18. ↑ Borrie FRP, Bearn DR, Innes NPT, Iheozor-Ejiofor Z (2015). "Interventions for the cessation of non-nutritive sucking habits in children". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021 (3): CD008694. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008694.pub2. PMC   8482062 . PMID   25825863.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. 1 2 3 4 American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry (2024). "American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. Policy on pacifiers" (PDF). The Reference Manual of Pediatric Dentistry. Chicago, Ill: 79–82.
  20. ↑ Psaila, Kim; Foster, Jann P.; Pulbrook, Neil; Jeffery, Heather E. (2017-04-05). "Infant pacifiers for reduction in risk of sudden infant death syndrome". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 4 (4): CD011147. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011147.pub2. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   6478106 . PMID   28378502.
  21. ↑ Do Pacifiers Reduce the Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome? A Meta-analysis. Pediatrics.aappublications.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-14.
  22. ↑ The Changing Concept of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Aappolicy.aappublications.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-14.
  23. ↑ Horne RS; Hauck FR; Moon RY; L'hoir MP; Blair PS (2014). "Dummy (pacifier) use and sudden infant death syndrome: potential advantages and disadvantages". J Paediatr Child Health. 50 (3): 170–4. doi:10.1111/jpc.12402. PMID   24674245. S2CID   23184656.
  24. ↑ Blass EM, Watt LB (1999). "Suckling- and sucrose-induced analgesia in human newborns". Pain. 83 (3): 611–23. doi:10.1016/s0304-3959(99)00166-9. PMID   10568870. S2CID   1695984.
  25. ↑ Curtis SJ, Jou H, Ali S, Vandermeer B, Klassen T (2007). "A randomized controlled trial of sucrose and/or pacifier as analgesia for infants receiving venipuncture in a pediatric emergency department". BMC Pediatrics. 7: 27. doi: 10.1186/1471-2431-7-27 . PMC   1950500 . PMID   17640375.
  26. ↑ Zardetto, Cristina Giovannetti del Conte, Célia Regina Martins Delgado Rodrigues and Fabiane Miron Stefani (2002). "Effects of Different Pacifiers on the Primary Dentition and Oral Myofunctional Structures of Preschool Children". Pediatric Dentistry. 24 (6): 552–559. PMID   12528948.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ↑ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. "Thumb, Finger and Pacifier Habits". Archived from the original on 2008-02-01.
  28. ↑ Mitchell EA, Blair PS, L'Hoir MP (2005). "Should Pacifiers Be Recommended to Prevent Sudden Infant Death Syndrome?". Pediatrics. 117 (5): 1755–1758. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1625. PMID   16651334. S2CID   19513208.
  29. ↑ Oral Health Foundation. "Dental care for mother and baby" . Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  30. 1 2 Passman, R. H.; Halonen, J. S. (1979). "A developmental survey of young children's attachments to inanimate objects". Journal of Genetic Psychology. 134 (2): 165–178. doi:10.1080/00221325.1979.10534051.
  31. ↑ Halonen, J. S.; Passman, R. H. (1978). "Pacifiers' effects upon play and separations from the mother for the one-year-old in a novel environment". Infant Behavior and Development. 1: 70–78. doi:10.1016/S0163-6383(78)80010-1.
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