Parallel syntax

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In rhetoric, parallel syntax (also known as parallel construction, parallel structure, and parallelism) is a rhetorical device that consists of repetition among adjacent sentences or clauses. The repeated sentences or clauses provide emphasis to a central theme or idea the author is trying to convey. [1] Parallelism is the mark of a mature language speaker. [2]

Contents

In language, syntax is the structure of a sentence, thus parallel syntax can also be called parallel sentence structure. This rhetorical tool improves the flow of a sentence as it adds a figure of balance to sentences it is implemented into. [3] [4] It also aids in making the sentence more concise by eliminating unnecessary words that could distract the reader from the main idea and following a clear pattern of language. It is a simple way to achieve clarity and avoid ambiguity, [5] but it is avoided unless the relationship of the ideas or details they express justifies parallelism. [5] Parallel structure is like the derived conjunction analysis because it assumes several underlying complete sentences. [6]

In addition to providing emphasis, it is evident that parallel structure appeals to the reader or listener in a variety of ways as well. Primarily, the repetition of clauses promotes a heightened mental ability to process the sentence as a whole; studies have shown that the reiteration of the second clause will increase the speed an individual can process the sentence. [7] Furthermore, it decreases the load of information needed to be processed by the reader, facilitating comprehension. [7] Because it is more appealing, it is also more persuasive.

According to Aristotle, persuasion is created through parallel syntax by means of repetition. Recapping crucial aspects of an argument through properly created phrases and clauses further embeds the idea into the listener, ultimately resulting in persuasion. However, these clauses must be created precisely, in a way similar to poetry, in order to maximize the effect. For example, paired sentences, phrases, or clauses must be created with equal structure in regards to verb and noun choice, along with both number of syllables and meter; according to Aristotle, the more ways in which these aspects match, the more persuasive the argument will be. [8] Faulty parallelism most often occurs with coordinating conjunctions that connect nouns and adjectives. [9]

Using parallel syntax among two clauses is known as an isocolon, when among three clauses it is known as a tricolon. [1] Having similar syntactical structure among clauses or phrases helps the reader identify the similarity of ideas proposed within them. [10] Isocolon is made up of the Greek words iso (equal) and kolon (member), so each part or clause is the same length. A tricolon has 3 clauses that do not need to be the same length. An isocolon can be a tricolon but a tricolon cannot be an isocolon.

Parallel syntax is often used in conjunction with antithesis, anaphora, asyndeton, climax, epistrophe and symploce. [3]

Examples

Parallel structure

Faulty Parallelism

Examples of Parallel structure used alongside other rhetorical devices:

Examples of Isocolons and Tricolons:

The English version of the Latin phrase cannot be an Isocolon because the third clause is not the same length as the first two. "Veni, vidi, vici" is both an Isocolon and a Tricolon, but "I came, I saw, I conquered" is only a Tricolon.

History

The first known instances of parallel syntax can be traced back to Aristotle in his book Rhetoric. [11] Aristotle underlines the fact that it is very useful in persuasion to pair multiple sentences, each with very similar clauses and phrases to the point that they are equal or nearly equal in syllable count; Aristotle perfected this art by creating various examples to be cited in a very metrically organized way. [8] However, although Aristotle did provide examples and a definition, there is evidence to support that he was simply not comfortable with the amount of power tied to the styling of sentences; with a proper design of sentence, Aristotle believed that one can wield incredible amounts of persuasive power. [8]

Related Research Articles

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English grammar is the set of structural rules of the English language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and whole texts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Figure of speech</span> Change of the expected pattern of words

A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is a word or phrase that intentionally deviates from ordinary language use in order to produce a rhetorical effect. Figures of speech are traditionally classified into schemes, which vary the ordinary sequence of words, and tropes, where words carry a meaning other than what they ordinarily signify.

Antithesis is used in writing or speech either as a proposition that contrasts with or reverses some previously mentioned proposition, or when two opposites are introduced together for contrasting effect. This is based on the logical phrase or term.

In language, a clause is a constituent that comprises a semantic predicand and a semantic predicate. A typical clause consists of a subject and a syntactic predicate, the latter typically a verb phrase composed of a verb with any objects and other modifiers. However, the subject is sometimes unvoiced if it is retrievable from context, especially in null-subject language but also in other languages, including English instances of the imperative mood.

In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjunctions. That definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, and so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each language. In English, a given word may have several senses, and be either a preposition or a conjunction depending on the syntax of the sentence. For example, after is a preposition in "he left after the fight" but is a conjunction in "he left after they fought". In general, a conjunction is an invariable (non-inflected) grammatical particle that may or may not stand between the items conjoined.

In general linguistics, the comparative is a syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison between two entities or groups of entities in quality or degree - see also comparison (grammar) for an overview of comparison, as well as positive and superlative degrees of comparison.

In rhetoric, a rhetorical device, persuasive device, or stylistic device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading them towards considering a topic from a perspective, using language designed to encourage or provoke an emotional display of a given perspective or action. They seek to make a position or argument more compelling than it would otherwise be.

In linguistics, a determiner phrase (DP) is a type of phrase headed by a determiner such as many. Controversially, many approaches, take a phrase like not very many apples to be a DP, headed, in this case, by the determiner many. This is called the DP analysis or the DP hypothesis. Others reject this analysis in favor of the more traditional NP analysis where apples would be the head of the phrase in which the DP not very many is merely a dependent. Thus, there are competing analyses concerning heads and dependents in nominal groups. The DP analysis developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and it is the majority view in generative grammar today.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anaphora (rhetoric)</span> Repeating the same phrase before each clause for emphasis

In rhetoric, an anaphora is a rhetorical device that consists of repeating a sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses, thereby lending them emphasis. In contrast, an epistrophe is repeating words at the clauses' ends. The combination of anaphora and epistrophe results in symploce.

Asyndeton is a literary scheme in which one or several conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses. Examples include veni, vidi, vici and its English translation "I came, I saw, I conquered". Its use can have the effect of speeding up the rhythm of a passage and making a single idea more memorable. Asyndeton may be contrasted with syndeton and polysyndeton, which describe the use of one or multiple coordinating conjunctions, respectively.

Parataxis is a literary technique, in writing or speaking, that favors short, simple sentences, without conjunctions or with the use of coordinating, but not with subordinating conjunctions. It contrasts with syntaxis and hypotaxis.

In grammar, parallelism, also known as parallel structure or parallel construction, is a balance within one or more sentences of similar phrases or clauses that have the same grammatical structure. The application of parallelism affects readability and may make texts easier to process.

The Rhetorica ad Herennium is the oldest surviving Latin book on rhetoric, dating from the late 80s BC. It was formerly attributed to Cicero or Cornificius, but is in fact of unknown authorship, sometimes ascribed to an unnamed doctor.

Parallelism is a rhetorical device that compounds words or phrases that have equivalent meanings so as to create a definite pattern. This structure is particularly effective when "specifying or enumerating pairs or series of like things". A scheme of balance, parallelism represents "one of the basic principles of grammar and rhetoric".

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In linguistics, verb phrase ellipsis is a type of elliptical construction and a type of anaphora in which a verb phrase has been left out (elided) provided that its antecedent can be found within the same linguistic context. For example, "She will sell sea shells, and he will <sell sea shells> too" is understood as "She will sell sea shells, and he will sell sea shells too". VP-ellipsis is well-studied, particularly with regard to its occurrence in English, although certain types can be found in other languages as well.

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In linguistics, scheme is a type of figure of speech that relies on the structure of the sentence, unlike the trope, which plays with the meanings of words.

<i>The Elements of Eloquence</i>

The Elements of Eloquence: How to Turn the Perfect English Phrase is a non-fiction book by Mark Forsyth published in 2013. The book explains classical rhetoric, dedicating each chapter to a rhetorical figure with examples of its use, particularly in the works of William Shakespeare. Forsyth argues the power of Shakespeare's language was a result of studying formal rhetoric, and highlights their use through Shakespeare's development.

References

  1. 1 2 Farnsworth, Ward. Farnsworth's Classical English Rhetoric. 1st. Boston: David R. Godine, 2011. 74. Print.
  2. ↑ Pooley, Robert C. (1958). "What Grammar Shall I Teach?". The English Journal. 47 (6): 327–333. doi:10.2307/808588. ISSN   0013-8274. JSTOR   808588.
  3. 1 2 Eidenmuller, Michael E. "Rhetorical Figures in Sound: Parallelism." Rhetorical Figures in Sound: Parallelism. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2013.
  4. ↑ Brooks, Phyllis (1973). "Mimesis: Grammar and the Echoing Voice". College English. 35 (2): 161–168. doi:10.2307/375442. ISSN   0010-0994. JSTOR   375442.
  5. 1 2 Ebbitt, Wilma R., David R. (1990). Index to English, Eighth Edition. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 182.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ "Parallel Structures in Syntax." Lingua 75.2 (1988): 275-87. Print.
  7. 1 2 Frazier, Lyn; Taft, Lori; Roeper, Tom; Clifton, Charles; Ehrlich, Kate (March 29, 1984). "Parallel Structure: A Source of Facilitation in Sentence Comprehension". Memory & Cognition. 12 (5): 421–430. doi: 10.3758/bf03198303 . PMID   6521643.
  8. 1 2 3 Fahnestock, Jeanne (April 1, 2003). "Verbal and Visual Parallelism". Written Communication. 20 (2): 128. doi:10.1177/0741088303020002001. S2CID   144871309.
  9. 1 2 Webster, Charles, Merriam, George (1989). Webster's Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. pp. 433–434. ISBN   0-87779-032-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Strunk, William. Elements of Style. Ithaca, N.Y.: Priv. print. [Geneva, N.Y.: Press of W.P. Humphrey], 1918; Bartleby.com, 1999. www.bartleby.com/141/.
  11. ↑ Fahnestock, Jeanne (April 1, 2003). "Verbal and Visual Parallelism". Written Communication. 20 (2): 126. doi:10.1177/0741088303020002001. S2CID   144871309.
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