Relations between Gaya and ancient Japan

Last updated

Yamato Japan and the Gaya Confederacy, which were located directly across the Korea Strait from one another, had very close diplomatic and commercial ties since prehistory until the conquest of Gaya by Silla in 562 AD.

Contents

Until recently Japanese historians had believed that Gaya, once called Mimana in Japanese, was controlled by Japan for most of its existence as an overseas colonial possession. Though this theory has been largely refuted since the 1970s, it remains a sensitive and re-occurring issue in modern-day Korea–Japan relations.

Gaya and Japan

Around 300 BC the introduction into Japan of agriculture and metallurgy from the regions of Korea which would later become Gaya helped bring a transition from the hunter-gatherer Jōmon culture into the Yayoi culture, [1] [2] though it is unclear whether this transition occurred due to a large-scale or small-scale invasion by a mainland Asian group or by the adoption of imports by the native inhabitants of the Japanese islands. [3] As the nations of Yayoi Japan gradually unified, Gaya was the first foreign country with which they established relations [4] and by the beginning of the Kofun period around 250 AD Gaya remained the country with which Japan had the closest links. [5] [6] [7] Many Japanese archaeological sites dating from the Yayoi and the subsequent Kofun period testify to these contacts, with one holding artifacts that were 70% of Gayan origin. [4]

Commerce and migration

A thriving bilateral trade existed between Gaya and Japan. Gaya exported pottery, horse tack, and most crucially, iron and iron products, to Japan, [8] [9] [10] and among the items Japan sent back to Gaya were bronze implements and jade magatama produced at Itoigawa. [11] [12] For most of its existence Gaya enjoyed a monopoly on major trade routes both between Japan and China and between Japan and the rest of Korea, and was thus an important intermediary between Japan and other Asian countries. [13] [14]

Due to its proximity to China the Gaya Confederacy was also politically and technologically ahead of Japan and played an important role in Japan's development as a nation. [15] Mass migrations of Gayans to Japan, often to escape strife between Gaya and neighboring Korean states, allowed Japan to produce on its own some of the products it had previously needed to import. [4] Japan's sue pottery style [16] and its first iron production were founded by Gayan immigrants, and Gayan warriors and officials were widely employed by the Japanese government. [17] [18]

Military alliance

In 399 AD Japan formed a military alliance with Gaya and Baekje in opposition to the growing power of Goguryeo and Silla and from then on the Japanese often dispatched military forces to protect Gaya's territorial integrity, possibly in exchange for iron or other goods. [19] [20] The defeat of one such Japanese expedition to Gaya is described on the Gwanggaeto Stele constructed in 414 AD. [21] Japanese mercenaries were also allowed to serve in Korea, and the characteristically Japanese keyhole-shaped burial mounds which started to appear in Gaya and Paekche at the end of the 5th century are believed to be the tombs of those who died in Korea. [22] While the unity of the Gaya Confederacy was falling apart under pressure from neighboring states, one of the Gayan states, Ara Gaya, even formed a joint military mission with Japan in 540 AD which was staffed by Japanese officers. [10]

In 554 AD Japanese soldiers fought alongside the armies of Gaya and Paekche at the Battle of Kwansan Fortress. [10] The defeat of this alliance by Silla sealed the fate of Gaya which was conquered by Silla in 562 AD. By this time Paekche had already broken Gaya's monopoly on trade with Japan and would replace Gaya as Japan's most important conduit for foreign trade and mainland Asian culture. [10] [23]

"Mimana" historical debate

The Nihon Shoki, an ancient text of Japanese history, states that Empress Jingū led a military expedition on the Korean peninsula which defeated the forces of Gaya, Paekche, and Silla, and made Gaya, which was referred to as Mimana, [24] [25] into a colony under the control of a Japanese administrative office called "Mimana Nihon Fu". [10] [26] By the calculation of Japanese historians, it was said that this event took place in either 249 AD or 369 AD, and that Japan's domination of Mimana lasted until 562 AD. [27] Though scholars had doubts about some aspects of this story, it was accepted as historical fact in both Japan and in Western countries that Japan had indeed possessed a colony called Mimana on the Korea peninsula between these dates. [26] [28] This theory was particularly popular in Japan prior to and during Japan's occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945 and was used as a justification for it. [26] [28] However, the theory continued to be supported well after 1945, including in the works of such influential Western Japanologists as George Sansom, John Whitney Hall, and Edwin Reischauer. [29] [30] [31]

Apart from the Nihon Shoki, evidence which was cited at the time to prove Japan's conquest of Gaya/Mimana included the exhuming of contemporary Japanese weaponry and armor from archeological sites in Korea, [22] the inscription on the Gwanggaeto Stele which indicates that Japanese forces were occupying Gaya, [32] and the titles received by Japanese monarchs from China's Liu Song dynasty acknowledging Japan's control over southern Korea. [32] Today however, Japanese artifacts in Korea are seen as evidence of Japanese armies and mercenaries dispatched at the request of Gaya and Paekche, [22] the inscription on the Gwanggaeto Stele is regarded as an exaggeration to justify Kokuryo's attacks, [33] and the titles granted by China are considered to be most likely purely symbolic. [34] Historians have also called into question the historical reliability of the Nihon Shoki's account of events, as Japan was far behind Gaya technologically and still politically fractious at the time when Empress Jingu was alleged to have successfully invaded Korea. [35] [36] [37]

In 1963 North Korean historian Kim Sŏk-hyŏng became the first scholar to call into question the existence of a Japanese colony in ancient South Korea. He instead put forward the so-called "branch kingdom theory", stating that "Mimana" was not in Korea at all but was a settlement of Gayan immigrants on the Japanese mainland in modern-day Okayama Prefecture which was eventually absorbed into Yamato Japan. [38] Though Kim's theory is today not widely accepted outside of North Korea, it did spur other historians to pursue further research in this field. [39] Hideo Inoue, the first Japanese historian to propose an alternative to the Japanese colonial theory, argued in a 1972 book that Mimana was actually a small self-governing settlement of Japanese immigrants living in Korea, though this idea is likewise not widely supported among academics. [39]

The theory which is today dominant among both Korean and Japanese historians is the "diplomatic delegation theory", originally put forward by Masayuki Ukeda in 1974, which proposes that "Mimana Nihon Fu" as described in the Nihon Shoki was actually a sort of Japanese embassy handling diplomatic relations between the independent states of Gaya and Japan. [39]

Rurarz describes five main theories about Mimana, the first of which was proposed by Suematsu. A second theory about Mimana was proposed by North Korean scholar Gim Seokhyeong, who suggested that Mimana was a political entity from the Korean Peninsula (possibly Gaya) who had a colony on the Japanese islands, somewhere around the modern-day city of Ōyama, Ōita in Ōita Prefecture; thus Nihongi should be understood as referring only to the Japanese islands and Jingū's conquest a description of a migration to a land in the Japanese Archipelago, not the Korean Peninsula. [40] [41] : p. 108–109  This is related to the so-called horserider invasion theory in which horse riders from the Korean Peninsula are hypothesized to have successfully invaded Japan, and in so doing introduced horses, not native to the islands, to Japan. [42] [43] A third theory has been proposed by Japanese scholar Inoue Hideo, who argued that ancient Japanese Wa people might have settled a region in the Korean peninsula as long ago as around the Neolithic, and the Mimana state was an enclave of this group. [40] A fourth theory was put forward by South Korean scholar Cheon Gwan-u, who argued that the events present a history of the Korean Baekje state, which was allied with Yamato Japan, and whose leaders fled there after Baekje's fall in the 7th century. In this version, Mimana would refer to Baekje, or some poorly understood fragment of that state, that fought against Gaya. [40] The fifth theory, which Rurarz describes as a "compromise version of recent young Japanese and Korean scholars" argues that there never was a Mimana state as such, and the term refers to Japanese diplomatic envoys active in the Korean peninsula in that era. [40] [44]

According to Han Yong-u, Yamato Japan could have established an office in Gaya in order to export iron to Japan; this theory suggests that Mimana was a diplomatic embassy, and Jingū's conquest would be a dramatization of efforts undertaken to establish that embassy. [41] : p. 112 

In 2010, a joint study group of historians sponsored by the governments of Japan and South Korea agreed that Gaya had never been military colonized by ancient Japan, but Japanese were active in the 6th century, a declaration deemed by the newspaper Chosun Ilbo to be a turning point in relations between the two countries. [45]

The "Mimana" controversy as an international issue

Scholar Mark Peterson has stated, "Today nothing offends the Korean sense of nationalism and resurrects the images of the brutal Japanese takeover more than to hear of one of its former kingdoms referred to by the Japanese name, Mimana – it has become one of the symbols of Japanese abuses in Korea over the centuries." [46]

Still, the debate among historians on the status of Mimana did not become a source of tension between Korea and its neighbors until the Japanese textbook controversy of 1982 which catapulted the way the Japanese viewed their history into the international spotlight. [47] [48] The crisis was sparked by allegations that Japan's Ministry of Education had been changing the word used in grade school history textbooks to describe Japan's overseas conquests from "invasion" to the more innocuous "advance". However, the controversy expanded to other issues, including the fact that the textbooks still discussed ancient Japan's conquest and rule of Mimana. [47] The South Korea government formally protested the books, condemning their descriptions of Mimana as "distorted and offensive" [49] and eventually Japan agreed to check the books for errors within two years time. [47]

Since then the issue of Mimana has been a reoccurring issue in Korea's international relations. Bill Gates recalled in 1997 that the release of the Korean edition of Microsoft Encarta which mentioned Japan's domination of Mimana was greeted with mass outrage in South Korea with one major newspaper calling for a boycott of Microsoft products. [50]

Another major eruption of the controversy occurred in April 2001 when the Japanese government approved for use in schools a history textbook written by the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform which endorsed the theory of Japan's colonial occupation of Mimana. [51] South Korea issued a strongly worded protest the following month which was rebuffed by Japan on the grounds that complaints about textbooks had to be issued during the approval process rather than after it. [52] Though the textbook was not widely adopted by schools, [53] when it came up for re-certification one year later the Japanese government requested that references to Japan's "base of operations" in Mimana be deleted "in view of scholarly opinions at this time concerning historic relations between Japan and Korea". [54] [55]

Shortly thereafter, during the controversy over the Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the South Korean government also reacted angrily to the government of China which had posted a summary of Korean history on the Foreign Ministry's website which implied that ancient Japan had controlled the southern Korean Peninsula. China responded by deleting its entire description of Korean history prior to 1945. [56]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kofun period</span> Period of Japanese history from 300 to 538

The Kofun period is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD, following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is the earliest era of recorded history in Japan, but studies depend heavily on archaeology since the chronology of historical sources tends to be distorted. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mound dating from this era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asuka period</span> Period of Japanese history from 538 CE to 710 CE

The Asuka period was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period. The Yamato polity evolved greatly during the Asuka period, which is named after the Asuka region, about 25 km (16 mi) south of the modern city of Nara.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baekje</span> Ancient Kingdom in southwestern Korea (18 BCE – 660 CE)

Baekje or Paekche was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. While the three kingdoms were in separate existence, Baekje had the highest population of approximately 3,800,000 people, which was much larger than that of Silla and similar to that of Goguryeo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Three Kingdoms of Korea</span> Pre-unification kingdoms (57 BC – 68 AD)

The Three Kingdoms of Korea or Samhan competed for hegemony over the Korean Peninsula during the ancient period of Korean history. During the Three Kingdoms period (Korean: 삼국시대), many states and statelets consolidated until, after Buyeo was annexed in 494 and Gaya was annexed in 562, only three remained on the Korean Peninsula: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The "Korean Three Kingdoms" contributed to what would become Korea; and the Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla peoples became the Korean people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Empress Jingū</span> Legendary empress of Japan from 201 to 269

Empress Jingū was a legendary Japanese empress who ruled as a regent following her husband's death in 200 AD. Both the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki record events that took place during Jingū's alleged lifetime. Legends say that after seeking revenge on the people who murdered her husband, she then turned her attention to a "promised land". Jingū is thus considered to be a controversial monarch by historians in terms of her alleged invasion of the Korean Peninsula. This was in turn possibly used as justification for imperial expansion during the Meiji period. The records state that Jingū gave birth to a baby boy whom she named Homutawake three years after he was conceived by her late husband.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaya confederacy</span> Confederacy of territorial polities in the Korean Nakdong River basin (AD 42-562)

Gaya was a Korean confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peninsular Japonic</span> Proposed extinct Japonic language family

The Peninsular Japonic languages are now-extinct Japonic languages reflected in ancient placenames and glosses from central and southern parts of the Korean Peninsula. Most linguists believe that Japonic arrived in the Japanese archipelago from the Korean peninsula during the first millennium BCE. The placename evidence suggests that Japonic languages were still spoken in parts of the peninsula for several centuries before being replaced by the spread of Korean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jin (Korean state)</span> Korean state during the Iron Age

The state of Jin was a confederacy of statelets which occupied some portion of the southern Korean peninsula from the 4th to 2nd centuries BCE, bordering the Korean Kingdom of Gojoseon to the north. Its capital was somewhere south of the Han River. It preceded the Samhan confederacies, each of which claimed to be the successor of the Jin state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mimana</span> Placename used in Japanese text Nihon Shoki

Mimana, also transliterated as Imna according to the Korean pronunciation, is the name used primarily in the 8th-century Japanese text Nihon Shoki, likely referring to one of the Korean states of the time of the Gaya confederacy. As Atkins notes, "The location, expanse, and Japaneseness of Imna/Mimana remain among the most disputed issues in East Asian historiography." Seth notes that the very existence of Mimana is still disputed.However, the hypothesis that Imna was a Japanese colonial ruling institution is being denied by the historical academia in Korea and Japan.

Korean influence on Japanese culture refers to the impact of continental Asian influences transmitted through or originating in the Korean Peninsula on Japanese institutions, culture, language and society. Since the Korean Peninsula was the cultural bridge between Japan and China throughout much of East Asian history, these influences have been detected in a variety of aspects of Japanese culture, including technology, philosophy, art, and artistic techniques.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baekje language</span> Language of Baekje

The language of the kingdom of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is poorly attested, and scholars differ on whether one or two languages were used. However, at least some of the material appears to be variety of Old Korean.

The Iwai Rebellion was a rebellion against the Yamato court that took place in Tsukushi Province, Japan in 527 AD. The rebellion was named after its leader, Iwai, who is believed by historians to have been a powerful governor of Tsukushi. The rebellion was quelled by the Yamato court, and played an important part in the consolidation of early Japan. The main record of the rebellion can be found in the Nihon Shoki, although it is also mentioned in Kojiki and other historical sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaya language</span> Presumed language in ancient Korea

Gaya, also rendered Kaya, Kara or Karak, is the presumed language of the Gaya confederacy in ancient southern Korea. Only one word survives that is directly identified as being from the language of Gaya. Other evidence consists of place names, whose interpretation is uncertain.

Japanese missions to Baekje represent an aspect of the international relations of mutual Baekje-Japanese contacts and communication. The bilateral exchanges were intermittent.

Japanese missions to Silla represent an aspect of the international relations of mutual Silla-Japanese contacts and communication. The bilateral exchanges were intermittent.

The Kibi Clan Rebellion from 463 was a revolt against the Yamato state on the Korean peninsula, involving two brothers from the Kibi clan: Tasa and Oto. The revolt was triggered when Tasa learned that the Japanese Emperor Yūryaku had moved him to the Japanese post at Mimana on the Korean Peninsula in order to seize his beautiful wife. The incident falls into Japan's proto-historic period and is recounted in the Nihon Shoki.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Han languages</span> Languages of the Samhan confederacies

The Han languages or Samhan languages were the languages of the Samhan of ancient southern Korea, the confederacies of Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan. They are mentioned in surveys of the peninsula in the 3rd century found in Chinese histories, which also contain lists of placenames, but are otherwise unattested. There is no consensus about the relationships between these languages and the languages of later kingdoms.

The Horserider Theory is a theory of the origins of Japan. It suggests that northern Asian 'horse-riders' influenced Japan in the 4th and 5th centuries CE. These horse-riders came from North Asia and the Korean peninsula. They conquered indigenous tribes in Japan. This led to the formation of the Yamato state. The theory is based on horse trappings found in Japanese tombs from the Kofun Period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yamatonoaya clan</span> Japanese immigrant clan

Yamatonoaya clan (東漢氏) was an immigrant clan active in Japan since the Kofun period according to the Nihon Shoki (720), Kojiki (711) and Shoku Nihongi (797).

Yuzuki no Kimi (弓月君) was the founder of the Hata clan, an immigrant clan in ancient Japan who hailed from the kingdom of Baekje according to the Nihon Shoki. He is considered one of the three most influential Toraijins alongside Achi no omi and Wani during the Kofun period.

References

  1. ↑ Kenneth B. Lee, Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1997), 23–25.
  2. ↑ Song-Nai Rhee et al., "Korean Contributions to Agriculture, Technology, and State Formation in Japan", Asian Perspectives, Fall 2007, 417–422.
  3. ↑ Jared Diamond, "Japanese Roots", Discover Magazine, June 1998.
  4. ↑ Tadashi Nishitani, "The Gaya Tumuli: Window on the Past", The Japan Foundation Newsletter, November 1993, 6.
  5. ↑ Kim Tae-sik, "Gaya Kingdom's Rightful Place in Korean History," Koreana, Spring 2006.
  6. ↑ Shin Kyung Choel, "Relations Between Gaya and Wa in the Third to Fourth Centuries AD", Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 2000, 112.
  7. ↑ Keith Pratt and Richard Rutt, Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary (Richmond, London: Curzon, 1999), 205.
  8. ↑ William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 72–73, 78, 84, 122.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Song-Nai Rhee, "Gaya: Korea's Lost Kingdom", Korean Culture, Fall 1999, 8–10.
  10. ↑ Shin Kyung Choel, "Relations Between Gaya and Wa in the Third to Fourth Centuries AD," Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 2000, 118.
  11. ↑ "Silla's Skillful Diplomacy under King Nulchi in the Fifth Century"
  12. ↑ Song-Nai Rhee, "Gaya: Korea's Lost Kingdom", Korean Culture, Fall 1999, 6.
  13. ↑ William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 107.
  14. ↑ Ch'on Kwan-u, "A New Interpretation of the Problems of Mimana", Korea Journal, February 1974, 11.
  15. ↑ Paul Bahn, The Penguin Archaeology Guide (New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001), 427–428.
  16. ↑ Song-Nai Rhee, "Gaya: Korea's Lost Kingdom", Korean Culture, Fall 1999, 12.
  17. ↑ Song-Nai Rhee et al., "Korean Contributions to Agriculture, Technology, and State Formation in Japan", Asian Perspectives, Fall 2007, 436–441.
  18. ↑ Song-Nai Rhee et al., "Korean Contributions to Agriculture, Technology, and State Formation in Japan", Asian Perspectives, Fall 2007, 436.
  19. ↑ William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 109–110.
  20. ↑ William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 114–115.
  21. 1 2 3 "倭の軍 - 朝鮮側の要請か", Yomiuri Shimbun, 12 January 2011.
  22. ↑ Jinwung Kim, A History of Korea: From Land of the Morning Calm to States in Conflict (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012), 74.
  23. ↑ Ch'on Kwan-u, "A New Interpretation of the Problems of Mimana", Korea Journal, February 1974, 15, 17.
  24. ↑ Wontack Hong, Ancient Korea-Japan Relations: Paekche and the Origin of the Yamato Dynasty (Seoul: Kudara International, 2010), 143.
  25. 1 2 3 William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 57–64.
  26. ↑ Ch'on Kwan-u, "A New Interpretation of the Problems of Mimana", Korea Journal, February 1974, 10.
  27. 1 2 James H. Grayson, "Mimana, A Problem in Korean Historiography", Korea Journal, August 1977, 65, 67–68.
  28. ↑ George Sansom, Japan: A Short Cultural History (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 33–35.
  29. ↑ John Whitney Hall, Japan from Prehistory to Modern Times (New York: Delacorte Press, 1970), 37–43.
  30. ↑ Edwin Reischauer and John K. Fairbank, East Asia: The Great Tradition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958), 468–469.
  31. 1 2 William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 60–61, 64–65, 116–117.
  32. ↑ Pankaj N. Mohan, "Rescuing a Stone from Nationalism: A Fresh Perspective on the King Kwanggaet'o Stele of Koguryŏ," Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies, Summer 2004, 106–108.
  33. ↑ Ch'on Kwan-u, "A New Interpretation of the Problems of Mimana", Korea Journal, February 1974, 19, 21–22.
  34. ↑ Song-Nai Rhee et al., "Korean Contributions to Agriculture, Technology, and State Formation in Japan", Asian Perspectives, Fall 2007, 447.
  35. ↑ Shin Kyung Choel, "Relations Between Gaya and Wa in the Third to Fourth Centuries AD", Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 2000, 120.
  36. ↑ William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 106, 121.
  37. ↑ William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998), 65–66.
  38. 1 2 3 Young-sik Lee, "Recent Research Trends on the History of Gaya in Korea", International Journal of Korean History, December 2000, 9–10, 12–14.
  39. 1 2 3 4 Rurarz 2009, p.90
  40. 1 2 Pankaj Mohan (2016). "The Controversy over the Ancient Korean State of Gaya: A Fresh Look at the Korea–Japan History War". In Michael Lewis (ed.). 'History Wars' and Reconciliation in Japan and Korea. The Roles of Historians, Artists and Activists. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 107–124. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-54103-1_6. ISBN   978-1-137-54102-4.
  41. ↑ Michael J. Seth (1 January 2006). A Concise History of Korea: From The Neolithic Period Through The Nineteenth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 31–32. ISBN   978-0-7425-4005-7.
  42. ↑ Helen Hardacre (1998). The Postwar Developments of Japanese Studies in the United States. BRILL. pp. 45–47. ISBN   978-90-04-10981-0.
  43. ↑ Rurarz 2009, p.91
  44. ↑ Yukiko Ishikawa and Masahiko Takekoshi, "History gap still hard to bridge", Yomiuri Shimbun, 25 March 2010.
  45. ↑ Mark Peterson, A Brief History of Korea (New York: Fact on File, 2010), 22.
  46. 1 2 3 Chong-Sik Lee, Japan and Korea: The Political Dimension (Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1985), 143. 147–152.
  47. ↑ Takashi Yoshida, The Making of the "Rape of Nanking" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 89–90.
  48. ↑ Hyung Il Pai, Constructing "Korean" Origins (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Asia Center, 2000), 10.
  49. ↑ Janet Lowe, Bill Gates Speaks: Insight from the World's Greatest Entrepreneur (New York: Wiley, 2001), 139–140, 246.
  50. ↑ Lee Won-deog, "A Normal State Without Remorse: The Textbook Controversy and Korea-Japan Relations", East Asian Review, Autumn 2001, 24.
  51. ↑ "中学歴史教科書 - 韓国、修正を要求", Sankei Shimbun, 8 May 2001.
  52. ↑ "0.03% of junior high students to use disputed textbook", Kyodo News, 16 August 2001.
  53. ↑ "李氏朝鮮・加羅の記述「不適切」 - 「韓国関連」に変化," Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 10 April 2002.
  54. ↑ "来春使用の高校教科書 - 韓国へ配慮にじむ検定", Sankei Shimbun, 10 April 2002.
  55. ↑ "韓・中・日　歴史紛争三つ巴に", Mindan News, 31 August 2004.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.