Response-prompting procedures

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Response-prompting procedures are systematic strategies used to increase the probability of correct responding and opportunities for positive reinforcement for learners by providing and then systematically removing prompts. Response prompting is sometimes called errorless learning because teaching using these procedures usually results in few errors by the learner. The goal of response prompting is to transfer stimulus control from the prompt to the desired discriminative stimulus. [1] Several response prompting procedures are commonly used in special education research: (a) system of least prompts, (b) most to least prompting, (c) progressive and constant time delay, and (d) simultaneous prompting.

Contents

System of least prompts

The SLP prompting procedure uses and removes prompts by moving through a hierarchy from less to more restrictive prompts. [2] [3] [4] If the student emits the correct behavior at any point during this instructional trial [5] (with or without prompts), reinforcement is provided. The system of least prompts gives the learner the opportunity to exhibit the correct response with the least restrictive level of prompting needed. Because teachers are required to use multiple types of prompts (e.g., verbal and physical prompts), the SLP prompting procedure may be complicated for use in typical settings, [6] but may be similar to non-systematic teaching [7] procedures typically used by teachers that involve giving learners an opportunity to exhibit a behavior independently before providing a prompt.

Example: SLP trial for teaching sitting behavior

Prompt LevelTeacher BehaviorLearner Behavior and ConsequenceLearner Behavior and ConsequenceLearner Behavior and Consequence
IndependentGives direction:"Everyone sit in their desk"Unprompted Correct: Sits (provide reinforcer)No response (provide prompt 1)Unprompted Incorrect (provide prompt 1)
Verbal PromptGives Prompt 1: "Matt, please sit in your desk"Prompted Correct: Sits (provide reinforcer)No response (provide prompt 2)Prompted Incorrect (provide prompt 2)
Gesture PromptGives Prompt 2: "Everyone sit in their desk." Moves towards and points to deskPrompted Correct: Sits (provide reinforcer)No response (provide prompt 3)Prompted Incorrect (provide prompt 3)
Physical PromptGives Prompt 3: Puts hands on learner's shoulders and physically guides him to sitPrompted Correct: Sits (provide reinforcer)No response (ignore). This response is unlikely: re-evaluate prompt and/or value of reinforcerNo response (ignore). This response is unlikely: re-evaluate prompt and/or value of reinforcer

SLP has been widely used for a variety of learners and skills. It has been most widely used in a 1:1 format (individual instruction) for chained skills. [6] It has recently been used in conjunction with new technology, like portable DVD players and video iPods, to each self-help skills to young adults with intellectual disabilities [8] and to improve transition skills for elementary school students with autism spectrum disorders. [9]

Most to least prompting

The MTL prompting procedure (Cuvo, Leaf, & Borakove, 1978) removes prompts by moving through a hierarchy from most restrictive to less restrictive. [10] The MTL prompting procedure begins with the most restrictive prompt, usually a physical prompt. After the learner has received reinforcement for completing the task with physical prompts, a less restrictive prompt is given (e.g., a partial physical prompt), and then an even less restrictive prompt (e.g., verbal prompt). Usually, a specific criterion is set for each prompt change (e.g., after three days of correct performance of the behavior with the use of a partial physical prompt, a verbal prompt will be used). If the individual fails to perform the behavior correctly with the less intrusive prompt, the instructor would return to a more intrusive prompt for a specified number of trials. [6] Eventually, the discriminative stimulus for the behavior is the typically occurring stimulus (e.g., when lunch is finished, student independently goes to the sink to wash hands) or the direction (e.g., when teacher says "Class, it is time to sit in your desks", the student sits in his desk).

Example: MTL prompting procedure for opening lunchbox

Order of PromptsPrompting LevelTeacher BehaviorCriterion for Moving to Less Intrusive Prompt
1PhysicalPlaces hands over learner's hands and physically guides learner to open lunchbox3 days at 100% correct responding with physical prompts
2VerbalSays "Matt, open your lunchbox."3 days at 100% correct responding with verbal prompts
3IndependentGives learner his lunchboxN/A

MTL prompting procedures have been most often used to teach chained tasks (e.g., hand washing) to learners with intellectual disabilities, [11] but has been used to teach learners with mild to profound disabilities from infants to adults. [6] Wolery and Gast [11] suggest that MTL prompting procedures should be used with non-imitative learners who may not initially respond to less-restrictive prompts like models and may not be as efficient for imitative learners with mild or no disabilities.

Constant and progressive time delay

With CTD and PTD procedures, the same prompt is used throughout, and this prompt should ensure that the learner can give the correct response: It is a "controlling" prompt. The time delay prompt procedures are different from SLP and MTL procedures because instead of removing prompts by progressing through a hierarchy, prompts are removed by delaying them in time. The progressive time delay procedure was developed first, [12] and the constant time delay procedure was developed as a more parsimonious procedure for teaching students with disabilities. [13] CTD and PTD are systematic procedures that use the teaching strategy of waiting on a learner's response that has likely been used haphazardly for years. [6]

When using time delay procedures, a prompt is initially given immediately after the desired discriminative stimulus. For example, immediately after the teacher says "What is this?" while showing a picture of a dog, she gives the student the correct answer "dog". After a pre-specified number of trials (when teaching discrete tasks, usually this is a "session" comprising at least 10 trials), the prompt is delayed. In the previous example, the teacher would ask the question "What is this?" and would then wait a few seconds before giving the controlling prompt "dog". PTD delays the prompt in time gradually, so the teacher would first wait 1 second, then 2 seconds, etc. CTD delays the prompt in time only once, usually by 3–5 seconds.

Example: Trial during an initial session of PTD or CTD to teach naming

Prompt LevelTeacher BehaviorLearner Behavior and ConsequenceLearner Behavior and ConsequenceLearner Behavior and Consequence
Prompted"What is this? Dog." While showing a picture of a dog. (Waits specified time; e.g., 3 seconds)Prompted Correct: "Dog" (provide reinforcer)Prompted Incorrect: "Cat" (ignore)No Response (ignore)

During initial sessions, the learner is not given the opportunity to respond independently because the prompt is given immediately (0-second delay). However, in subsequent sessions, a learner is given an opportunity to respond independently because the prompt is delayed in time. The learner accesses reinforcement more quickly if s/he answers independently, but s/he is still reinforced for prompted responses.

Example: Trial during a subsequent session of PTD or CTD to teach naming

Prompt LevelTeacher BehaviorLearner Behavior and ConsequenceLearner Behavior and ConsequenceLearner Behavior and Consequence
Independent"What is this?" while showing a picture of a dog. (Waits specified time; e.g., 3 seconds)Unprompted Correct: "Dog" (provide reinforcer)Unprompted Incorrect: "Cat" (remind to wait for a prompt if s/he doesn't know the answer)No Response (provide prompt)
Prompted"What is this? Dog." While showing a picture of a dog. (Waits specified time; e.g., 3 seconds)Prompted Correct: "Dog" (provide reinforcer)Prompted Incorrect: "Cat" (ignore)No Response (ignore)

PTD and CTD are similar except that the delay is gradual for PTD and immediate for CTD. For students who are not able to wait for a prompt when they are unable to independently perform a skill, PTD may be a better choice as a prompting strategy because it will decrease errors. [6]

Example: Delay by session for PTD and CTD

SessionPTD DelayCTD Delay
10 sec0 sec
21 sec3 sec
32 sec3 sec
43 sec3 sec
5 and remaining sessions3 sec3 sec

CTD and PTD have been extensively used and found to be effective with a variety of students with and without disabilities, across both discrete and chained skills, in both individual and small group settings, for learners from toddlers to adults. Like SLP, CTD has been used in conjunction with new technologies like SMART boards to teach children with disabilities. [14] [15]

Simultaneous prompting

A modification of the time delay procedures was presented by Schuster and colleagues in 1992. [16] [17] For this procedure, the same prompt is given during every session (a controlling prompt; similar to CTD and PTD). However, the prompt is not delayed in time. During every instructional session, the prompt is immediately given to the student after the stimulus is presented (see 0 second delay sessions, above). The learner does not have a chance to emit an unprompted response during these sessions. However, immediately before each session, a probe session is conducted to test whether the child can emit an unprompted correct response. So, using an example similar to the one above, a teacher might present a picture and ask "What is this?" and then immediately give a prompt ("dog") during instructional sessions. Each day prior to instructional sessions, the teacher would ask "What is this?" but provide no prompts. This probe session is done to test whether the student has acquired the material. Instruction ends when the learner reaches a criterion level (e.g., 100% correct for 3 consecutive days) during probe sessions.

The primary advantage of simultaneous prompting, when compared with time delay procedures, is that a learner does not need to have the prerequisite skill of waiting for a prompt if he or she cannot independently emit the behavior. It is also a less complicated procedure for teachers to use because there are fewer response variations (e.g., unprompted corrects and unprompted incorrects are not possible) and fewer prompt variations (e.g., no need to vary prompt intrusiveness or delay).

Simultaneous prompting has been used with learners from three years of age through adulthood, and with learners with learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, and learners without disabilities. [18] A recent study suggests that it may not be necessary to conduct probes every day, [19] but further research is needed to determine how frequency of probe sessions affects efficiency of the procedure.

Summary and limitations

All of the discussed response prompting procedures can be considered evidence based practices using the criteria suggested by Horner and colleagues in 2005. [20] [21] Studies have shown that response prompting is effective for learners from preschool through adulthood, in a variety of instructional contexts (e.g., embedded into large group activities, during small group direct instruction). In addition, studies have shown that a variety of instructional agents, including teachers, assistants, and peers with and without disabilities, can accurately use prompting procedures.

Little is known about the use of prompting procedures when procedural fidelity is low, as it may be in typical instructional contexts, though errors in some steps of the procedure may not impede learning. [22] Additional studies regarding typical errors made by instructors and the effects of the errors on acquisition of skills by learners are needed. In addition, prompting procedures have been primarily used to teach specific responses rather than response classes (e.g., conversational skills, social play skills). The relative effectiveness of response prompting procedures to teach response classes needs to be studied. [22]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning</span> Process of acquiring new knowledge

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event, but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.

Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies.

Adaptive behavior is behavior that enables a person to cope in their environment with greatest success and least conflict with others. This is a term used in the areas of psychology and special education. Adaptive behavior relates to everyday skills or tasks that the "average" person is able to complete, similar to the term life skills.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA), also called behavioral engineering, is a psychological intervention that applies approaches based upon the principles of respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior of social significance. It is the applied form of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism and the experimental analysis of behavior.

Chaining is a type of intervention that aims to create associations between behaviors in a behavior chain. A behavior chain is a sequence of behaviors that happen in a particular order where the outcome of the previous step in the chain serves as a signal to begin the next step in the chain. In terms of behavior analysis, a behavior chain is begun with a discriminative stimulus (SD) which sets the occasion for a behavior, the outcome of that behavior serves as a reinforcer for completing the previous step and as another SD to complete the next step. This sequence repeats itself until the last step in the chain is completed and a terminal reinforcer is achieved. For example, the chain in brushing one's teeth starts with seeing the toothbrush, this sets the occasion to get toothpaste, which then leads to putting it on one's brush, brushing the sides and front of mouth, spitting out the toothpaste, rinsing one's mouth, and finally putting away one's toothbrush. To outline behavior chains, as done in the example, a task analysis is used.

A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal, how the goal will be reached and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached.

In education, Response to Intervention is an approach to academic intervention used to provide early, systematic, and appropriately intensive assistance to children who are at risk for or already underperforming as compared to appropriate grade- or age-level standards. RTI seeks to promote academic success through universal screening, early intervention, frequent progress monitoring, and increasingly intensive research-based instruction or interventions for children who continue to have difficulty. RTI is a multileveled approach for aiding students that is adjusted and modified as needed if they are failing.

This glossary of education-related terms is based on how they commonly are used in Wikipedia articles. This article contains terms starting with G – L. Select a letter from the table of contents to find terms on other articles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inclusion (education)</span> Where disabled students spend most of their time with non-disabled students

Inclusion in education refers to all students being able to access and gain equal opportunities to education and learning. It arose in the context of special education with an individualized education program or 504 plan, and is built on the notion that it is more effective for students with special needs to have the said mixed experience for them to be more successful in social interactions leading to further success in life. The philosophy behind the implementation of the inclusion model does not prioritize, but still provides for the utilization of special classrooms and special schools for the education of students with disabilities. Inclusive education models are brought into force by educational administrators with the intention of moving away from seclusion models of special education to the fullest extent practical, the idea being that it is to the social benefit of general education students and special education students alike, with the more able students serving as peer models and those less able serving as motivation for general education students to learn empathy.

Special education in the United States enables students with exceptional learning needs to access resources through special education programs. These programs did not always exist. "The idea of excluding students with any disability from public school education can be traced back to 1893, when the Massachusetts Supreme Court expelled a student merely due to poor academic ability". This exclusion would be the basis of education for all individuals with special needs for years to come. In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education sparked the belief that the right to a public education applies to all individuals regardless of race, gender, or disability. Finally, special education programs in the United States were made mandatory in 1975 when the United States Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) "(sometimes referred to using the acronyms EAHCA or EHA, or Public Law 94-142) was enacted by the United States Congress in 1975, in response to discriminatory treatment by public educational agencies against students with disabilities." The EAHCA was later modified to strengthen protections to students with disabilities and renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA requires states to provide special education and related services consistent with federal standards as a condition of receiving federal funds.

Adapted physical education is the art and science of developing, implementing, and monitoring a carefully designed physical education. Instructional program for a learner with a disability, based on a comprehensive assessment, to give the learner the skills necessary for a lifetime of rich leisure, recreation, and sport experiences to enhance physical fitness and wellness. Principles and Methods of Adapted Physical Education and Recreation.Adapted physical education generally refers to school-based programs for students ages 3–21yrs.

Errorless learning was an instructional design introduced by psychologist Charles Ferster in the 1950s as part of his studies on what would make the most effective learning environment. B. F. Skinner was also influential in developing the technique, noting that,

...errors are not necessary for learning to occur. Errors are not a function of learning or vice versa nor are they blamed on the learner. Errors are a function of poor analysis of behavior, a poorly designed shaping program, moving too fast from step to step in the program, and the lack of the prerequisite behavior necessary for success in the program.

Tact is a term that B.F. Skinner used to describe a verbal operant which is controlled by a nonverbal stimulus and is maintained by nonspecific social reinforcement (praise).

Natural language training is a set of procedures used by behavior analysts that rely heavily on mand training in the natural environment. These procedures include incidental teaching, functional communication training, and pivotal response treatment, which are used to mirror the natural areas of language use for children. Behavior analytic language training procedures run along a continuum from highly restrictive such as discrete trial training to very nonrestrictive conversationally-based strategies. Natural language falls in the middle of these procedures.

Language pedagogy is the discipline concerned with the theories and techniques of teaching language. It has been described as a type of teaching wherein the teacher draws from their own prior knowledge and actual experience in teaching language. The approach is distinguished from research-based methodologies.

Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) is a variation of peer-mediated instruction that has been used in elementary, middle school, and high school classrooms. In CWPT students form pairs and take turns in the roles of tutor and student. Students earn points for their teams by participating in the tutoring and the winning team is recognized. Researchers have investigated CWPT's effectiveness in several different academic areas.

Chaining is a technique used in applied behavior analysis to teach complex tasks by breaking them down into discrete responses or individual behaviors that are part of a task analysis. With a backward chaining procedure the learning can happen in two ways. In one approach the adult can complete all the steps for the learner and give the learner the opportunity to attempt the last one and prompt as needed. For the other approach the adult can prompt the learner throughout the steps on the chain and give the learner an opportunity to complete the last one independently. However, if unable to do so the adult helps by also prompting the learner through the last step and reinforcement is given to the learner once the last step is completed. Because independency is desired the goal is to remove the prompts as soon as the learner can complete the steps without help.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Picture Exchange Communication System</span> A communication teaching method for people with limited speech

The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is an augmentative and alternative communication system developed and produced by Pyramid Educational Consultants, Inc. PECS was developed in 1985 at the Delaware Autism Program by Andy Bondy, PhD, and Lori Frost, MS, CCC-SLP. The developers of PECS noticed that traditional communication techniques, including speech imitation, sign language, and picture point systems, relied on the teacher to initiate social interactions and none focused on teaching students to initiate interactions. Based on these observations, Bondy and Frost created a functional means of communication for individuals with a variety of communication challenges. Although PECS was originally developed for young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), its use has become much more widespread. Through the years, PECS has been successfully implemented with individuals with varying diagnoses across the aged span. PECS is an evidence-based practice that has been highly successful with regard to the development of functional communication skills.

Active student response (ASR) techniques are strategies to elicit observable responses from students in a classroom. They are grounded in the field of behavioralism and operate by increasing opportunities reinforcement during class time, typically in the form of instructor praise. Active student response techniques are designed so that student behavior, such as responding aloud to a question, is quickly followed by reinforcement if correct. Common form of active student response techniques are choral responding, response cards, guided notes, and clickers. While they are commonly used for disabled populations, these strategies can be applied at many different levels of education. Implementing active student response techniques has been shown to increase learning, but may require extra supplies or preparation by the instructor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social narrative</span> Learning tool for people with disabilities

A social narrative is an evidence-based learning tool designed for use with people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other associated disabilities. Social narratives often use personalized stories to teach a skill, identify a situation, or tell a narrative; some examples of social narratives may cover topics such as getting along with others, interacting with others, or experiencing a new place or activity. It is referred to as a story or a written explanation that tells the learner not only what to do but also what the situation is, with the goal of addressing the challenge of learners finding social situations confusing. Social narratives have been found effective for learners ages Preschool-High School in several areas such as social, communication, joint attention, behavior, adaptive, play, and academic.

References

  1. ↑ "Discriminative Stimulus definition | Psychology Glossary". AlleyDog.com.
  2. ↑ Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., & Doyle, P. M. (1992).
  3. ↑ Miltenberger, R. G. "Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures". Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. p. 214.
  4. ↑ Teaching students with moderate to severe disabilities. Use of response prompting strategies. New York: Longman.
  5. ↑ http://www.educateautism.com/applied-behaviour-analysis/discrete-trial-training.html
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., & Doyle, P. M. (1992). Teaching students with moderate to severe disabilities. Use of response prompting strategies. New York: Longman.
  7. ↑ "Put Reading First -- K-3 (phonics)". LINCS.
  8. ↑ Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Fields, E. A. (2008). Evaluation of a portable DVD player and system of least prompts to self-prompt cooking task completion by young adults with moderate intellectual disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 42, 179–190.
  9. ↑ Cihak, D., Fahrenkrog, C., Ayres, K. M., & Smith, C. (2010). The use of video modeling via a video iPod and a system of least prompts to improve transitional behaviors for students with autism spectrum disorders in the general education classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12, 103–115.
  10. ↑ Miltenberger, R. G. "Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures". Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. p. 215.
  11. 1 2 Wolery, M., & Gast, D. L. (1984). Effective and efficient procedures for the transfer of stimulus control. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 4, 55–77.
  12. ↑ Touchette, P. E., (1971). Transfer of stimulus control: Measuring the moment of transfer. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 15, 347–354.
  13. ↑ Snell, M. E., & Gast, D. L. (1981). Applying the time delay procedure to the instruction of the severely handicapped. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 6, 3–14.
  14. ↑ Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Krupa, K. (2007). Impact of SMART board technology: An investigation of sight word reading and observational learning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1869–1882.
  15. ↑ Campbell, M. L., & Mechling, L. C. (2009). Small group computer-assisted instruction with SMART board technology: An investigation of observational and incidental learning of nontarget information. Remedial and Special Education, 30, 47–57.
  16. ↑ Gibson, A. N., & Schuster, J. W. (1992). The use of simultaneous prompting for teaching expressive word identification to preschoolers with developmental delays. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 12, 247–267.
  17. ↑ Schuster, J. W., Griffen, A. K., & Wolery, M. (1992). Comparison of simultaneous prompting and constant time delay procedures in teaching sight words to elementary students with moderate mental retardation. Journal of Behavioral Education, 2, 305–325.
  18. ↑ Morse, T. E., & Schuster, J. W. (2004). Simultaneous prompting: A Review of the Literature. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 39, 153–168.
  19. ↑ Reichow, B., & Wolery, M. (2009). Comparison of everyday and every-fourth-day probe sessions with the simultaneous prompting procedure. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29, 79–89.
  20. ↑ Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 165–179.
  21. ↑ Wolery, M. (in press). Studying response prompting procedures. In C. H. Kennedy (Ed.), Context, intervention, and disability: Essays in honor of Thomas G. Haring.
  22. 1 2 Wilbers, J. S. (1989). Effects of high and low procedural fidelity in the delay interval of the constant time delay procedure. Unpublished Master's degree thesis. University of Kentucky, Lexington.
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