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Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups. Ψ (psi), the first letter of the Greek word psyche from which the term psychology is derived, is commonly associated with the science.
Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation and served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Thorndike as the ninth-most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Edward Thorndike had a powerful impact on reinforcement theory and behavior analysis, providing the basic framework for empirical laws in behavior psychology with his law of effect. Through his contributions to the behavioral psychology field came his major impacts on education, where the law of effect has great influence in the classroom.
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William Kaye Estes was an American psychologist. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Estes as the 77th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. In order to develop a statistical explanation for the learning phenomena, William Kaye Estes developed the Stimulus Sampling Theory in 1950 which suggested that a stimulus-response association is learned on a single trial; however, the learning process is continuous and consists of the accumulation of distinct stimulus-response pairings.
E-learning theory describes the cognitive science principles of effective multimedia learning using electronic educational technology.
Richard Shiffrin is an American psychologist, professor of cognitive science in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Indiana University, Bloomington. Shiffrin has contributed a number of theories of attention and memory to the field of psychology. He co-authored the Atkinson–Shiffrin model of memory in 1968 with Richard Atkinson, who was his academic adviser at the time. In 1977, he published a theory of attention with Walter Schneider. With Jeroen G.W. Raaijmakers in 1980, Shiffrin published the Search of Associative Memory (SAM) model, which has served as the standard model of recall for cognitive psychologists well into the 2000s. He extended the SAM model with the Retrieving Effectively From Memory (REM) model in 1997 with Mark Steyvers.
The study of memory incorporates research methodologies from neuropsychology, human development and animal testing using a wide range of species. The complex phenomenon of memory is explored by combining evidence from many areas of research. New technologies, experimental methods and animal experimentation have led to an increased understanding of the workings of memory.
Abram Amsel was a Canadian-born American psychologist and faculty member at several universities. A member of the National Academy of Sciences and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, he conducted influential research into concepts of reward and nonreward in learning and behavior. Later, his research shifted from learning theory to neurobiology.
References
- ↑ e.g. Tarpy, R. M., St Claire-Smith, R., & Roberts, J. E. (1986). The effect of informational stimuli on instrumental response rate - signaling reward versus signaling the availability of reward. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, Section B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 38, 173-189.
- ↑ e.g. Lea, S. E. G., & Tarpy, R. M (1986). Hamsters' demand for food to eat and hoard as a function of deprivation and cost. Animal Behaviour, 34, 1759-1768. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80262-7
- ↑ e.g. Tarpy, R. M., & Scharer, J. B (1994). Ivanov-Smolensky conditioning: Relationship between CR and UR form and intensity. Biological Psychology, 37, 247-258. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(94)90006-X
- ↑ see footnote to Tarpy, R. M. (1969). Reinforcement difference limen (rdl) for delay in shock escape. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 116-121. doi:10.1037/h0026988
- ↑ Williams College faculty list 1972-73 http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/951429/17344316/1332867091493/Williams+Faculty+1971-72.pdf?token=X9Ma22CtkDQUR1v%2BlTWsh5uZm0Y%3D
- ↑ see University of Exeter Calendar, 1981-82
- ↑ Mid-Atlantic District Member Search, http://www.midatlanticdistrict.com/?Code=Members&ID=155865
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