Semantic compaction

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Semantic compaction, (Minspeak), conceptually described as polysemic (multi-meaning) iconic encoding, is one of the three ways to represent language in Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). [1] It is a system utilized in AAC devices in which sequences of icons (pictorial symbols) are combined in order to form a word or a phrase. The goal is to increase independent communication in individuals who cannot use speech. Minspeak is the only patented system for Semantic Compaction and is based on multi-meaning icons that code vocabulary in short sequences determined by rule-driven patterns. [2] [3] [4] [5] Minspeak has been used with both children and adults with various disabilities, including cerebral palsy, motor speech disorders, developmental disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, and adult onset disabilities such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS).

Contents

History

Bruce Baker was the first to develop the idea of sequencing picture symbols as an encoding system which he patented under the name of Minspeak. His desire to develop this system stemmed from his doctorate work in linguistics, which focused on the language used to describe and interact with people with disabilities. During interviews with AAC users, he noticed the linguistic capabilities provided by the devices were very primitive at the time, excluding any modern linguistic insights. As a result, Baker developed a rudimentary coding system used during these interviews to facilitate more optimal communication. This coding system served as the impetus for development of the Minspeak program.

Inspired by his work with ancient hieroglyphic writing systems, he envisioned a communication program in which a group of ideas could be represented by one single picture. The specific idea that the user wished to convey would be determined by the context or sequence in which the picture was used. As a result, he began developing a computer system using inputs from multi-meaning pictures in a variety of ways that would allow the user access to a wide array of language. These multi-meaning pictures would maximize the user's current communication abilities and facilitate information exchange in an economical way.

Baker's preliminary work for Minspeak included forty icons. The first was a picture of an ear, representing phatic exchanges (communication devoid of information exchange, i.e. "what’s up"). Other icons were selected to represent additional speech functions. In 1981, Baker and one of this former students, Kenneth Smith, implemented the first Minspeak program on an AIM 65 computer using a Votrax SC01 voice synthesizer. In December 1981, Baker teamed with Barry Romich and signed his first commercial agreement for Minspeak. This led to the development of the Minspeak program on Express III hardware in the summer of 1982. Minspeak was released to the public for commercial use at the American Speech-Language and Hearing Association (ASHA) Convention of 1983 in Cincinnati, Ohio. From that point forward, Minspeak evolved into a dynamic communication system, advancing its capabilities to serve a more diverse user population and to establish an efficient language approach to augmentative and alternative communication. [6]

Conceptual basis

Minspeak is an encoding system based on the idea of sequencing picture symbols. This system is governed by a specific set of rules and uses iconic encoding, indicating that there is not a one-to-one correspondence between a symbol and its meaning. [7] As the symbols typically contain a variety of details, each symbol may be associated with multiple meanings. [7] The meaning is defined by combining pictures in short sequences, and these sequences follow patterns. [8] For example, the rainbow icon combines with other icons to denote colors, such as "rainbow" and "apple" combining to signify the word "red." Therefore, Minspeak operates as a system of symbols, and not as a set of symbols, because it allows for the creation of "novel" concepts not explicitly expressed by each symbol, but rather by the combination of existing symbols. For example, a Minspeak symbol depicting a dog holding a newspaper can also represent the concepts "dog", "pet" and "bring/get", depending on the other symbols with which it is combined. [7] Minspeak provides a means of coding language whereby specific combinations of symbols generate specific messages. [7]

In order to facilitate vocabulary recall, this system uses a rule-based system of ordering the pictures. [7] Minspeak concepts can also be used with pre-programmed vocabulary sets called Minspeak Application Programs (MAPs) and later these messages and symbol combinations may be determined by the AAC user themself if desired. [7] MAPs are used as initial starter vocabulary sets until this later customization is done by the user, and additional keys may be added by the user as their knowledge expands. [9] [7] Nonspeaking individuals using Minspeak software must be able to logically sequence encoded picture sequences together. [10]

Usage and Learnability

Minspeak uses a core vocabulary. A core vocabulary encompasses syntactic function words and has limited usage of nouns as compared to traditional Single Meaning Picture sets in AAC. For example, pronouns and demonstratives (syntactic function words) are used more frequently than specific nouns, such as "dog", "pizza", or "flower". Core vocabulary represents the majority (73–90%) of words used by toddlers and preschool children. [11] [12] Mastery of core words is essential for the mastery of semantics, early syntax of 1 and 2-word phrases, basic morphology, and question structure. [13]

Unity is a Minspeak software program that operates based on the idea that 400 core words make up the majority of spoken language and that additional words are part of a fringe vocabulary. [14] Unity teaches preschool children language concepts using single picture symbols. [7] Initially, each picture in the system represents one word, but a more advanced communicator can combine short sequences of pictures to create words or phrase. [14] Unity has three levels which progress from beginning to advanced communicators, ranging from an initial icon set of 45 symbols and progressing up to an icon set of 144 symbols. These symbol systems use categorization and association to create symbol sequences. The most commonly used core words are found on the main screen of the Unity system, with additional screens featuring less common core and fringe vocabulary words. [14] Part of Speech Markers may also be used in this symbol set, such that the concept "Hot" is generated by a sequence containing a symbol and the Part of Speech Marker "Adjective". [7] Unity also gives the user the opportunity to add his or her own words to the system's fringe vocabulary. If the user wants to add a word such as "magnificent" that is not already included in the fringe vocabulary, the user can utilize the meanings of existing icons to derive the new word. For example, combining the icon "elephant" symbolizes something large and the icon "sunrise" symbolizes something bright or beautiful. Users are able to program these two icons in sequence to represent the word "magnificent".

Words Strategy is a Minspeak software program that uses a more advanced form of iconic encoding, designed for the adolescent or adult AAC user who is able to combine words into more complex sentence sequences using picture-grammar symbol sequences. [7] This application allows for the generation of more than 2,500 words using this sequencing format. [7]

Motor learning is an important component of becoming a fluent semantic compaction user. Consistent icon sequencing to produce a word should be considered throughout the process of learning to use semantic compaction devices. The Language Acquisition through Motor Planning (LAMP) strategy aids individuals in developing motor plans paired with auditory output to represent words. Minspeak relies upon the motor-based learning principles that when motor patterns are repeated, these processes become automatic and simplified. [15] Common automated motor patterns include typing on a keyboard without looking, riding a bicycle, or swallowing food and drink. Increased automaticity and simplification with the production of language allows experienced Minspeak users to delegate cognitive attention to their intended message (language) instead of to the formulation of their message. This allows users to focus on communicating a specific message rather than focus on how to build the message by searching for icons across different pages and or screens. The use of LAMP strategies has been associated with increased natural expression through unique combinations of words in non-verbal children with autism. [16] Ideally, once the system of Minspeak is mastered, productions of communication should take less time and effort across communication contexts.

There have been a limited number of studies reviewing the efficacy of using semantic compaction. Few studies have investigated how young children learn and use Minspeak. Two of these studies have shown that semantic compaction strategies are challenging for typically developing children who are 2–5 years old given after receiving only four training sessions. [17] [18] Although a group of four- and five-year-old children increased their ability to use iconic encoding after four learning sessions, they were less accurate vocabulary children using other methods of organizing vocabulary such as by category, or on a visual scene. [17] The researchers proposed several possible reasons for the children's difficulties including "a possible lack of understanding of the semantic associations of the icons; a lack of conceptual knowledge required to understand multiple associations; and limited knowledge of parts of speech (several icon combinations required the use of a speech marker for adjective, preposition, and interjection)." [3] A follow up study found that icon prediction, in which the options available for selection are highlighted, did not help children to locate vocabulary more accurately, but there was some evidence that the use of icon prediction may facilitate generalization of semantic compaction strategies to new vocabulary items. [3]

On the other hand, there is research that indicates that intensive teaching (including practice outside of therapy sessions) can improve young children's ability to use semantic compaction accurately. A case study of a 3-year-old girl with cerebral palsy revealed that intensive, systematic training involving the client, family members, therapists, and educational teams can make it possible to achieve marked progress in early language skills while learning and using a Minspeak device. [19] Learnability of Minspeak systems may heavily depend on the quality of its teaching and how often it is used with a specific child.

Literacy

Literacy is communication in all forms such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Literacy development begins in infancy and continues to mature into adulthood. Literacy plays an important role in the success of academic, social, and professional development. Literacy skills are not a prerequisite to utilizing a semantic compaction system, [20] however this system can be used to promote the development of literacy skills. [2] Essential components of literacy development include phonological awareness, vocabulary development, phonics, word identification, and comprehension. Semantic compaction is a rule driven system that supports the development of literacy through vocabulary development, morphology development, and comprehension. [21] In addition, the icons can be used to help teach phonological awareness. For example, when teaching phonological awareness and segmenting initial sounds the instructor will say a phoneme and visually present the phoneme at the same time. Then the student will point to a picture that starts with that phoneme. To develop literacy skills, semantic compaction systems needs to be paired with an instructional program that meets the unique needs of the person using AAC. [22]

Intensive home and school training with the use of Minspeak had a strong effect (effect size=1.16) on literacy skills in a three-year-old girl with cerebral palsy. [19] [23]

Language System Comparisons

Semantic Compaction uses short symbol sequences and provides a single overlay to diminish the need of switching screens to find additional vocabulary items. The vocabulary icons provide multiple meanings which reduce the need for a large symbol set. The chart below compares 3 common methods used to represent language on an AAC device: [20] [24]

LiteracyLength of symbol combinationNumber of symbols requiredSymbol sequence lengthPromotes message automacticity
Single Meaning PicturesNot requiredShortLargeShortNo
Alphabet-Based SystemsRequiredLongSmallLongYes
Semantic CompactionNot requiredShortSmallrelatively shortYes

Three advantages of semantic compaction over single meaning pictures and alphabet-based systems are that a user need not be literate, symbol combinations are limited to up to just 3 at a time, and fewer symbols are required on the screen or device than with other AAC devices. [20] A disadvantage of semantic compaction is that the user must be able to memorize codes; if a user is not cognitively capable of linking multiple icons together, he or she will not benefit from the semantic compaction system. [25] A single-meaning icon set would be more appropriate.

Related Research Articles

Blissymbols or Blissymbolics is a constructed language conceived as an ideographic writing system called Semantography consisting of several hundred basic symbols, each representing a concept, which can be composed together to generate new symbols that represent new concepts. Blissymbols differ from most of the world's major writing systems in that the characters do not correspond at all to the sounds of any spoken language.

In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium. An early example is an invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what they thought, saw, heard, or felt to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time.

Language Communication using symbols (such as words) structured with grammar

A language is a structured system of communication used by humans, based on speech and gesture, sign, or often writing. The structure of language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Many languages, including the most widely-spoken ones, have writing systems that enable sounds or signs to be recorded for later reactivation. Human language is unique among known systems of animal communication in that it is not dependent on a single mode of transmission, it is highly variable between cultures and across time, and affords a much wider range of expression than other systems. It has the properties of productivity and displacement, and relies on social convention and learning.

The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to linguistics:

Symbolic communication is the exchange of messages that change a priori expectation of events. Examples of this are modern communication technology and the exchange of information amongst animals. By referring to objects and ideas not present at the time of communication, a world of possibility is opened. In humans, this process has been compounded to result in the current state of modernity. A symbol is anything one says or does to describe something, and that something can have an array of many meanings. Once the symbols are learned by a particular group, that symbol stays intact with the object. Symbolic communication includes gestures, body language and facial expressions, as well as vocal moans that can indicate what an individual wants without having to speak. Research argues that about 55% of all communication stems from nonverbal language. Symbolic communication ranges from sign language to braille to tactile communication skills.

Autocomplete, or word completion, is a feature in which an application predicts the rest of a word a user is typing. In Android and iOS smartphones, this is called predictive text. In graphical user interfaces, users can typically press the tab key to accept a suggestion or the down arrow key to accept one of several.

Reading for special needs has become an area of interest as the understanding of reading has improved. Teaching children with special needs how to read was not historically pursued due to perspectives of a Reading Readiness model. This model assumes that a reader must learn to read in a hierarchical manner such that one skill must be mastered before learning the next skill. This approach often led to teaching sub-skills of reading in a decontextualized manner. This style of teaching made it difficult for children to master these early skills, and as a result, did not advance to more advanced literacy instruction and often continued to receive age-inappropriate instruction.

Vocabulary development Process of learning words

Vocabulary development is a process by which people acquire words. Babbling shifts towards meaningful speech as infants grow and produce their first words around the age of one year. In early word learning, infants build their vocabulary slowly. By the age of 18 months, infants can typically produce about 50 words and begin to make word combinations.

Phonological awareness is an individual's awareness of the phonological structure, or sound structure, of words. Phonological awareness is an important and reliable predictor of later reading ability and has, therefore, been the focus of much research.

Augmentative and alternative communication Techniques used for those with communication impairments

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) encompasses the communication methods used to supplement or replace speech or writing for those with impairments in the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC is used by those with a wide range of speech and language impairments, including congenital impairments such as cerebral palsy, intellectual impairment and autism, and acquired conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. AAC can be a permanent addition to a person's communication or a temporary aid. Stephen Hawking used AAC to communicate through a speech-generating device.

Picture communication symbols

Picture communication symbols (PCS) are a set of colour and black & white drawings originally developed by Mayer-Johnson, LLC for use in augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems. These AAC systems may be high-tech (Dynamyte) or low-tech such as a communication board.

Speech-generating device Augmenting speech device

Speech-generating devices (SGDs), also known as voice output communication aids, are electronic augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems used to supplement or replace speech or writing for individuals with severe speech impairments, enabling them to verbally communicate. SGDs are important for people who have limited means of interacting verbally, as they allow individuals to become active participants in communication interactions. They are particularly helpful for patients suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) but recently have been used for children with predicted speech deficiencies.

Gestures in language acquisition are a form of non-verbal communication involving movements of the hands, arms, and/or other parts of the body. Children can use gesture to communicate before they have the ability to use spoken words and phrases. In this way gestures can prepare children to learn a spoken language, creating a bridge from pre-verbal communication to speech. The onset of gesture has also been shown to predict and facilitate children's spoken language acquisition. Once children begin to use spoken words their gestures can be used in conjunction with these words to form phrases and eventually to express thoughts and complement vocalized ideas.

Tangible symbols are a type of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) that uses objects or pictures that share a perceptual relationship with the items they represent as symbols. A tangible symbol's relation to the item it represents is perceptually obvious and concrete – the visual or tactile properties of the symbol resemble the intended item. Tangible Symbols can easily be manipulated and are most strongly associated with the sense of touch. These symbols can be used by individuals who are not able to communicate using speech or other abstract symbol systems, such as sign language. However, for those who have the ability to communicate using speech, learning to use tangible symbols does not hinder further developing acquisition of natural speech and/or language development, and may even facilitate it.

Speech and language impairment are basic categories that might be drawn in issues of communication involve hearing, speech, language, and fluency.

A letter board may refer to two devices.

iConji pictographic writing system

iConji is a free pictographic communication system based on an open, visual vocabulary of characters with built-in translations for most major languages.

Ajit Narayanan is the inventor of FreeSpeech, a picture language with a deep grammatical structure. He's also the inventor of Avaz, India's first Augmentative and Alternative Communication device for children with disabilities. He is a TR35 awardee (2011) and an awardee of the National Award for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities by the President of India (2010).

Signalong is an alternative and augmentative key-word signing communication method used by those individuals with a speech, language and communication need. The Signalong methodology has been effectively used with individuals who have cognitive impairments, autism, Down's Syndrome, specific language impairment, multisensory impairment and acquired neurological disorders that have negatively affected the ability to communicate, including stroke patients and English as an additional language.

The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is an augmentative and alternative communication system developed and produced by Pyramid Educational Consultants, Inc. PECS was developed in 1985 at the Delaware Autism Program by Andy Bondy, PhD, and Lori Frost, MS, CCC-SLP. The developers of PECS noticed that traditional communication techniques, including speech imitation, sign language, and picture point systems, relied on the teacher to initiate social interactions and none focused on teaching students to initiate interactions. Based on these observations, Bondy and Frost created a functional means of communication for individuals with a variety of communication challenges. Although PECS was originally developed for young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), its use has become much more widespread. Through the years, PECS has been successfully implemented with individuals with varying diagnoses across the aged span. PECS is an evidence-based practice that has been highly successful with regard to the development of functional communication skills.

References

  1. ↑ "Information for AAC Users" . Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  2. 1 2 Minspeak: What is Minspeak
  3. 1 2 3 Drager, K., ‌Light, J., (2010) A Comparison of the Performance of 5-year-old Children with Typical Development using Iconic Encoding in AAC Systems with and without Icon Prediction on a Fixed Display Augmentative and Alternative Communication 26:1, 12–20
  4. ↑ Beukelman, D. and Mirenda, P. (2005). Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Supporting Children and Adults with Complex Communication Needs. (3rd edition). Baltimore: Brookes.
  5. ↑ Minspeak: What is Semantic Compaction? Semantic Compaction Systems. 20 April 2010.
  6. ↑ Baker, Bruce (Spring 1988). "Minspeak™ History". PRC: Current Expressions. Retrieved 7 November 2013.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Glennen, Sharon L. and Decoste, Denise C. (1997). The Handbook of Augmentative and Alternative Communication. Singular Publishing Group, Inc.: San Diego, CA. pp. 122–23
  8. ↑ Rush, Elizabeth. "Creating a Framework for AAC Evidenced Based Practice". ASHA. Retrieved 8 October 2013.
  9. ↑ Minspeak Fact Sheet
  10. ↑ Baker, B. (1986). Using Images to generate speech. Byte. 160–168.
  11. ↑ Banajee, M.; Dicarlo, C.; Stricklin, SB (2003). "Core vocabulary determination for toddlers". Augmentative and Alternative Communication. 19 (2): 67–73. doi:10.1080/0743461031000112034. S2CID   144458306.
  12. ↑ Beukelman, D.; Jones, R.; Rowan, M (1989). "Frequency of word usage by nondisabled peers in integrated preschool classrooms". Augmentative and Alternative Communication. 5 (4): 243–248. doi:10.1080/07434618912331275296.
  13. ↑ Baker, Bruce; Phillips, Dan. "Lexical versus Language Development: Their Roles in AAC".Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  14. 1 2 3 "About Unity Language".
  15. ↑ Benefits of Minspeak
  16. ↑ "Why LAMP?" . Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  17. 1 2 Light, J.; Drager, K.; McCarthy, J.; Mellott, S.; Millar, D.; Parrish, C.; Parsons, A.; Rhoads, S.; Ward, M.; Welliver, M. (2004). "Performance of typically developing four- and five-year-old children with AAC systems using different language organization techniques". Augmentative and Alternative Communication. 20 (2): 63–88. doi:10.1080/07434610410001655553. S2CID   62758034.
  18. ↑ Drager, K. D. R.; Light, J. C.; Curran Speltz, J.; Fallon, K. A.; Jeffries, L. Z. (2003). "The performance of typically developing 2 ½-year-olds on dynamic display AAC technologies with different system layouts and language organizations". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 46 (2): 298–312. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2003/024). PMID   14700373.
  19. 1 2 Mathisen, Bernice; Arthur-Kelly, Michael; Kidd, Jenny; Nissen, Chantelle (2009). "Using MINSPEAK: A case study of a preschool child with complex communication needs". Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology . 4 (5): 376–383. doi:10.1080/17483100902807112. PMID   19484639. S2CID   30488426.
  20. 1 2 3 "Augmentative and Alternative Communication Decisions". ASHA. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  21. ↑ "The Power of Minspeak" . Retrieved 21 November 2013.
  22. ↑ "Maximizing the Literacy Skills of Individuals who Require AAC".
  23. ↑ Dunst, Carl; Trivette, Carol; Hamby, Deborah (2012). "Assistive Technology and the Communication and Literacy Development of Young Children with Disabilities" (PDF). Center for Early Literacy Learning Reviews. 5 (7): 1–13. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  24. ↑ "A Comparison of Language Representation Methods" (PDF). Semantic Compaction Systems. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  25. ↑ "Section 5: Types of Aac Devices".

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