A Stoneley wave is a boundary wave (or interface wave) that typically propagates along a solid-solid interface. [2] When found at a liquid-solid interface, this wave is also referred to as a Scholte wave. [3] The wave is of maximum intensity at the interface and decreases exponentially away from it. It is named after the British seismologist Dr. Robert Stoneley (1894–1976), a lecturer in the University of Leeds, who discovered it on October 1, 1924. [4]
Stoneley waves are most commonly generated during borehole sonic logging and vertical seismic profiling. They propagate along the walls of a fluid-filled borehole. They make up a large part of the low-frequency component of the signal from the seismic source and their attenuation is sensitive to fractures and formation permeability. Recent studies have found that Stoneley wave processing in borehole help to distinguish between fractured versus non-fractured coal seam. [5] Therefore, analysis of Stoneley waves can make it possible to estimate these rock properties. The standard data processing of sonic logs to derive wave velocity and energy content is explained in [6] and. [7]
A number of wave modes have been predicted based on the fluidity of the medium. [8] [9]
| Wave Types in Solids | Particle Vibrations |
| Longitudinal | Parallel to wave direction |
| Transverse (Shear) | Perpendicular to wave direction |
| Surface - Rayleigh | Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode |
| Plate Wave – Lamb | Component perpendicular to surface (extensional wave) |
| Plate Wave – Love | Parallel to plane layer, perpendicular to wave direction |
| Stoneley (Leaky Rayleigh Waves) | Wave guided along interface |
| Sezawa | Antisymmetric mode |
Permeability can influence Stoneley wave propagation in three ways. Stoneley waves can be partly reflected at sharp impedance contrasts such as fractures, lithology, or borehole diameter changes. Moreover, as formation permeability increases, Stoneley wave velocity decreases, thereby inducing dispersion. The third effect is the attenuation of Stoneley waves. [10]
In physics, attenuation is the gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium. For instance, dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, and water and air attenuate both light and sound at variable attenuation rates.
In physics, a surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the interface between differing media. A common example is gravity waves along the surface of liquids, such as ocean waves. Gravity waves can also occur within liquids, at the interface between two fluids with different densities. Elastic surface waves can travel along the surface of solids, such as Rayleigh or Love waves. Electromagnetic waves can also propagate as "surface waves" in that they can be guided along with a refractive index gradient or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In radio transmission, a ground wave is a guided wave that propagates close to the surface of the Earth.
A seismic wave is a mechanical wave of acoustic energy that travels through the Earth or another planetary body. It can result from an earthquake, volcanic eruption, magma movement, a large landslide and a large man-made explosion that produces low-frequency acoustic energy. Seismic waves are studied by seismologists, who record the waves using seismometers, hydrophones, or accelerometers. Seismic waves are distinguished from seismic noise, which is persistent low-amplitude vibration arising from a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources.
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the vibration of the medium is parallel to the direction the wave travels and displacement of the medium is in the same direction of the wave propagation. Mechanical longitudinal waves are also called compressional or compression waves, because they produce compression and rarefaction when travelling through a medium, and pressure waves, because they produce increases and decreases in pressure. A wave along the length of a stretched Slinky toy, where the distance between coils increases and decreases, is a good visualization. Real-world examples include sound waves and seismic P-waves.
A P wave is one of the two main types of elastic body waves, called seismic waves in seismology. P waves travel faster than other seismic waves and hence are the first signal from an earthquake to arrive at any affected location or at a seismograph. P waves may be transmitted through gases, liquids, or solids.
In geophysics and reflection seismology, amplitude versus offset (AVO) or amplitude variation with offset is the general term for referring to the dependency of the seismic attribute, amplitude, with the distance between the source and receiver. AVO analysis is a technique that geophysicists can execute on seismic data to determine a rock's fluid content, porosity, density or seismic velocity, shear wave information, fluid indicators.
Supersonic fractures are fractures where the fracture propagation velocity is higher than the speed of sound in the material. This phenomenon was first discovered by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart and IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California.
Seismic anisotropy is the directional dependence of the velocity of seismic waves in a medium (rock) within the Earth.
Acoustic waves are a type of energy propagation that travels through a medium, such as air, water, or solid objects, by means of adiabatic compression and expansion. Key quantities describing these waves include acoustic pressure, particle velocity, particle displacement, and acoustic intensity. The speed of acoustic waves depends on the medium's properties, such as density and elasticity, with sound traveling at approximately 343 meters per second in air, 1480 meters per second in water, and varying speeds in solids. Examples of acoustic waves include audible sound from speakers, seismic waves causing ground vibrations, and ultrasound used for medical imaging. Understanding acoustic waves is crucial in fields like acoustics, physics, engineering, and medicine, with applications in sound design, noise reduction, and diagnostic imaging.
Geodynamics is a subfield of geophysics dealing with dynamics of the Earth. It applies physics, chemistry and mathematics to the understanding of how mantle convection leads to plate tectonics and geologic phenomena such as seafloor spreading, mountain building, volcanoes, earthquakes, faulting. It also attempts to probe the internal activity by measuring magnetic fields, gravity, and seismic waves, as well as the mineralogy of rocks and their isotopic composition. Methods of geodynamics are also applied to exploration of other planets.
Sonic logging is a well logging tool that provides a formation’s interval transit time, designated as , which is a measure of a how fast elastic seismic compressional and shear waves travel through the formations. Geologically, this capacity varies with many things including lithology and rock textures, most notably decreasing with an increasing effective porosity and increasing with an increasing effective confining stress. This means that a sonic log can be used to calculate the porosity, confining stress, or pore pressure of a formation if the seismic velocity of the rock matrix, , and pore fluid, , are known, which is very useful for hydrocarbon exploration.
Lamb waves propagate in solid plates or spheres. They are elastic waves whose particle motion lies in the plane that contains the direction of wave propagation and the direction perpendicular to the plate. In 1917, the English mathematician Horace Lamb published his classic analysis and description of acoustic waves of this type. Their properties turned out to be quite complex. An infinite medium supports just two wave modes traveling at unique velocities; but plates support two infinite sets of Lamb wave modes, whose velocities depend on the relationship between wavelength and plate thickness.
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel along the surface of solids. They can be produced in materials in many ways, such as by a localized impact or by piezo-electric transduction, and are frequently used in non-destructive testing for detecting defects. Rayleigh waves are part of the seismic waves that are produced on the Earth by earthquakes. When guided in layers they are referred to as Lamb waves, Rayleigh–Lamb waves, or generalized Rayleigh waves.
A Scholte wave is a surface wave propagating at an interface between a fluid and an elastic solid medium. The wave is of maximum intensity at the interface and decreases exponentially away from the interface into both the fluid and the solid medium. It is named after J. G. Scholte, who discovered it in 1947. This wave is similar to a Stoneley wave, which propagates at a solid-solid interface, and a Rayleigh wave, which propagates at a vacuum-solid interface.
Michael Schoenberg (1939–2008) was an American theoretical geophysicist noted for his fundamental contributions to the understanding of anisotropy in the real earth and its application to the determination of texture, fracture porosity, and flow properties of reservoir rocks.
An acoustic metamaterial, sonic crystal, or phononic crystal is a material designed to control, direct, and manipulate sound waves or phonons in gases, liquids, and solids. Sound wave control is accomplished through manipulating parameters such as the bulk modulus β, density ρ, and chirality. They can be engineered to either transmit, or trap and amplify sound waves at certain frequencies. In the latter case, the material is an acoustic resonator.
A synthetic seismogram is the result of forward modelling the seismic response of an input earth model, which is defined in terms of 1D, 2D or 3D variations in physical properties. In hydrocarbon exploration this is used to provide a 'tie' between changes in rock properties in a borehole and seismic reflection data at the same location. It can also be used either to test possible interpretation models for 2D and 3D seismic data or to model the response of the predicted geology as an aid to planning a seismic reflection survey. In the processing of wide-angle reflection and refraction (WARR) data, synthetic seismograms are used to further constrain the results of seismic tomography. In earthquake seismology, synthetic seismograms are used either to match the predicted effects of a particular earthquake source fault model with observed seismometer records or to help constrain the Earth's velocity structure. Synthetic seismograms are generated using specialized geophysical software.
A seismic metamaterial, is a metamaterial that is designed to counteract the adverse effects of seismic waves on artificial structures, which exist on or near the surface of the Earth. Current designs of seismic metamaterials utilize configurations of boreholes, trees or proposed underground resonators to act as a large scale material. Experiments have observed both reflections and bandgap attenuation from artificially induced seismic waves. These are the first experiments to verify that seismic metamaterials can be measured for frequencies below 100 Hz, where damage from Rayleigh waves is the most harmful to artificial structures.
Seismic inversion involves the set of methods which seismologists use to infer properties through physical measurements. Surface-wave inversion is the method by which elastic properties, density, and thickness of layers in the subsurface are obtained through analysis of surface-wave dispersion. The entire inversion process requires the gathering of seismic data, the creation of dispersion curves, and finally the inference of subsurface properties.
Infrasonic passive seismic spectroscopy (IPSS) is a passive seismic low frequency technique used for mapping potential oil and gas hydrocarbon accumulations.
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