The Constitution of Man

Last updated

The Constitution of Man (or more completely, The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects) first published in 1828 is a work by George Combe, who is credited with popularizing the pseudoscience of Phrenology. [1] Combe argues that the human mind is best understood through phrenology, and that the relative size of the various regions of the brain defined by phrenology determines a person's behavior and potential interactions with the external world. In The Constitution of Man, Combe uses phrenology to create a practical science of morality, [2] proposing that conforming to natural laws leads to happiness based on the phrenological understanding of human nature. [3] The book was an international bestseller, selling at least 100,000 copies in Britain alone [4] and over 300,000 copies worldwide by 1855, largely due to the publication of the 'people's edition,' [5] making it one of the best-sellers of the nineteenth century. [6]

Contents

Summary/Content

Preface

Combe prefaces his work by stating, "no author has hitherto attempted to point out, in a combined and systematic form, the relations between [the laws of nature] and the constitution of Man; which must, nevertheless, be done...The great object of the following Essay is to exhibit these relations, with a view to the improvement of education, and the regulation of individual conduct." [7] He explains his use of phrenology in the work by saying, "Phrenology appears to me to be the clearest, most complete, and best supported system of Human Nature." [7] Combe aims to use phrenology to develop a concept of the relationship between human nature and the external world.

Chapter I: On Natural Laws

In Chapter I, Combe defines the Natural Laws, categorizes them, and identifies principles concerning the Natural Laws. For Combe, "A law...denotes a rule of action; its existence indicates an established and constant mode, or process, according to which phenomena take place." [8] Natural Laws refer to "the rules of action impressed on objects and beings by their natural constitution" [9] Combe presents the relationship between God, Nature, and the Natural Laws: "If, then, the reader keep in view that God is the creator; that Nature, in the general sense, means the world which He has made; and, in a more limited sense, the particular constitution which he has bestowed on any special object...and that a Law of Nature means the established mode in which that constitution acts, and the obligation thereby imposed on intelligent beings to attend to it, he will be in no danger of misunderstanding my meaning" [10]

Combe identifies three categories for the Natural Laws: Physical, Organic, and Intelligent. The Physical Laws "embrace all the phenomena of mere matter," [11] the Organic Laws [indicate] that "every phenomenon connected with the production, health, growth, decay, and death of vegetables and animals, takes place with undeviating regularity." [12] Combe defines Intelligent beings as "all animals that have a distinct consciousness," [12] and the Intelligent Laws concern the makeup of the mental capacities of Intelligent beings. He then identifies four principles concerning the Natural Laws: 1) the Laws are independent 2) obeying the Laws brings rewards and disobedience brings punishment 3) the Laws are fixed and universal, and 4) the laws are harmonious with the constitution of man.

At the end of this chapter Combe once again presents the purpose of the work: "My object, I repeat, is to investigate the natural constitution of the human body and mind, their relations to external objects and beings in this world, and the courses of action that...appear to be beneficial or hurtful." [13]

Chapter II: Of the Constitution of Man, and its Relations to External Objects

In the first section, Combe discusses "Man Considered as a Physical Being," and asserts that man has been created by God to both understand and obey the laws of nature in both mental and physical capacities.

In section two, "Man Considered as an Organised Being," Combe argues that man is an organized being, subject to growth, decay, and eating food to survive; man must exercise these systems in some form of work if they are to enjoy pleasure.

In section three, "Man Considered as an Animal–Moral–and Intellectual Being," Combe introduces phrenology as the best way to understand the "animal, moral, and intellectual powers" of man, and proceeds to list the 'Human Faculties' according to phrenology:

In Section four, "The Faculties of Man Compared With Each Other; or the Supremacy of the Moral Sentiments and Intellect," Combe goes on to argue that the moral sentiments are superior to those that men share with animals, and that the faculties "are right only when directed by enlightened intellect and moral sentiment...they must be illuminated by knowledge of science and of moral and religious duty," [14] or else the result is evil. A delicate balance of the expression of the faculties is required for man's happiness.

In Section five, "The Faculties of Man Compared with External Objects," Combe identifies specific faculties and their effects on the eternal world. For example, with Philoprogenitiveness, the love of offspring, results in producing children.

Section six, "On the Sources of Human Happiness, and the Conditions Requisite for Maintaining it," Combe argues that man is born with no knowledge of the Natural Laws and must gain knowledge throughout life. Man must satisfy all of their faculties in harmony if one wishes to attain happiness. Combe believes that the 'Creator' has equipped man with the capacity to live an enjoyable life.

In Section seven, "Application of the Natural Laws to the Practical Arrangements," Combe expands upon his previous argument that Moral Sentiments and Intellect are the superior, and adds that the Intellect is nothing without emotion. Combe concludes the chapter by asserting once again that phrenology offers revelations into the nature of man, and can be used to support his argument that happiness comes with moral and intellectual growth.

Chapter III: To What Extent are the Miseries of Mankind Referable to Infringements of the Laws of Nature

In Section one "Calamities Arising from Infringements of the Physical Laws," Combe lists numerous organic and physical laws, and illustrates how their obedience results in happiness, and their disobedience in punishment. If one obeys the physical laws of nature, their likelihood of suffering is decreased.

In Section two, "On the Evils that Befall Mankind, from Infringement of the Organic Laws," Combe begins by reiterating his view that obedience to the moral laws and increasing ones knowledge through education beings happiness and livelihood. Education allows man to realize the relationship between the obedience of the Natural Laws and happiness. Combe also emphasizes that theoretical and practical knowledge should be combined through the integration of scientific and religious teachings.

Later in section two, Combe begins his discussion of phrenology and the inheritance of human traits. He states, "Mental talents and dispositions are determined by the size and constitution of the brain. The brain is a portion of our organized system, and as such, is subject to the organic laws, by one of which its qualities are transmitted by hereditary descent." [15] Combe extends this argument to nations of people: "The differences of national character are equally conspicuous as those of national brains, and it is surprising how permanently both endure" citing the perceived contemporary differences in the "Hindoo, Chinese, New Hollander, Negro, and Charib" [16] skulls. He then investigates the contemporary notions of trait inheritance in 'lower animals' like sheep and dogs and claims that the inheritance patterns observed in animals, children acquiring habits from the parent, resembles that of humans. Combe presents a hierarchy of human minds by human groups: "Europeans...possess a favourable development of the moral and intellectual organs," and Hindoos, and Native American "brains are inferior." [17] He goes on to say that the child with two European parents has superior mental qualities to that of a child with one European parent and one non-European parent, and that the child with one European parent has superior mental qualities to the child with no European parents [18] On the basis that intellectual and moral habits are inherited by offspring from parents, it is even more important to preserve and develop these faculties so that they may be ideal in offspring. Combe also proposes that the heredity of the capacities is limited to good and not evil, and despite the stratification of the races, each has the potential for improvement through generations up to an ideal limit of capacity.

In Section three "Calamities Arising from Infringement of the Moral Law," and section four "Moral Advantages of Punishment," Combe argues that the development of human moral and intellectual capacities results in individual, religious, moral, and societal improvement. [19]

Chapter IV: On the Combined Operation of the Natural Laws

In this chapter, Combe presents historical examples of the interactions of the natural laws, and how obedience to one does not necessarily imply obedience to the rest, and how punishment and reward for those laws disobeyed and obeyed, respectively, occurs in the lives of men.

Conclusion

Combe concludes by asserting that Phrenology provides an unprecedented science of the Mind. [20] With Phrenology, one can understand the constitution of man, and this is essential for individual and societal happiness and improvement. By understanding the mind and relationship of the mind to the external world, Combe argues that politics, legislation, education, morals, religion, and pursuits of man have the potential to improve, if only the principles of Phrenology and the obedience of the natural laws are true, taught, and incorporated into the 'public mind.' [21]

Reception

Initially, The Constitution of Man was indifferently received, selling in small numbers over a period of six years or so. [22] Historian James A. Secord reports, "In Britain Constitution was initially a flop. Published in an edition of 1,500 the book sold slowly until 1835, about 100 copies a year and received almost no reviews. In 1832, two revised, expanded, and subsidized ‘Henderson’ editions in the same format…sold quickly" [23] The Henderson edition was subsidized by William Ramsay Henderson with a donation of five-thousand pounds for the 'advancement of Phrenology.' [24] In 1836, the Chambers edition sold at one fifth of the regular price sold “85,000 copies by 1850 making Constitution 'among the best-selling books of the nineteenth century.' [25]

In Combe's lifetime, there were five published editions of The Constitution, [26] with 100,000 copies sold in the UK and 200,000 copies in the United States. [26] With the financial help of the Henderson Bequest, an affordable edition of The Constitution was published, selling 59,00 copies in a 3 year period. [26] There are at least nine unique published editions. [27]

Controversy

Though in The Constitution Combe states: "I have endeavoured to avoid all religious controversy," numerous contemporaries accused Combe of atheism, materialism, and determinism. [28] Combe took particular care not to offend Christian beliefs, but many critics read The Constitution as anti-Christian. [29] Critics feared that Combe threatened the role of God by championing the laws of nature, [30] and Combe was accused of attempting to sway followers of the Christian faith. [31] Historian Anthony Walsh comments, "As a work which denied to a certain extent Divine intervention in worldly happenings, [The Constitution] was condemned as an expression of infidelity." [6] Additionally, Combe's claim that the phrenological understanding of the mind and his own philosophy were valuable to guiding religious education was met with criticism, as they believed Combe prioritized his understanding of the Natural Laws and the phrenological understanding of the mind over the Bible. Historian James Secord notes, "Constitution maintained that understanding the laws of nature must be a preliminary to all religious instruction, so that the Bible needed to be interpreted in light of the Constitution rather than the other way around." [32]

Numerous attacks made on The Constitution were met with responses in the Journal of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society of which Combe was a founder and member. In later editions Combe attempted to reconcile Phrenology with Christianity in response to critics, [1] and Combe tried attempted to confirm the existence of Christianity's compatibility with his outlined Natural Laws. [33] Editions published after 1835 were notably different from the original version of The Constitution with additional sections and chapters added to address the religious controversy that surrounded Combe's book.

Related Research Articles

Natural law is a system of law based on a close observation of human nature, and based on values intrinsic to human nature that can be deduced and applied independently of positive law. According to the theory of law called jusnaturalism, all people have inherent rights, conferred not by act of legislation but by "God, nature, or reason." Natural law theory can also refer to "theories of ethics, theories of politics, theories of civil law, and theories of religious morality."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phrenology</span> Pseudoscientific study of human characteristics according to shape of the skull

Phrenology is a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules. It was said that the brain was composed of different muscles, so those that were used more often were bigger, resulting in the different skull shapes. This led to the reasoning behind why everyone had bumps on the skull in different locations. The brain "muscles" not being used as frequently remained small and were therefore not present on the exterior of the skull. Although both of those ideas have a basis in reality, phrenology generalized beyond empirical knowledge in a way that departed from science. The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict personality traits is discredited by empirical research. Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796, the discipline was influential in the 19th century, especially from about 1810 until 1840. The principal British centre for phrenology was Edinburgh, where the Edinburgh Phrenological Society was established in 1820.

The Virginia Declaration of Rights was drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent rights of men, including the right to reform or abolish "inadequate" government. It influenced a number of later documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and the United States Bill of Rights (1789).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Franz Joseph Gall</span> German anatomist

Franz Josef Gall was a German neuroanatomist, physiologist, and pioneer in the study of the localization of mental functions in the brain.

Some philosophers distinguish two types of rights, natural rights and legal rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness</span> Phrase in the United States Declaration of Independence

"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" is a well-known phrase from the United States Declaration of Independence. The phrase gives three examples of the unalienable rights which the Declaration says have been given to all humans by their Creator, and which governments are created to protect. Like the other principles in the Declaration of Independence, this phrase is not legally binding, but has been widely referenced and seen as an inspiration for the basis of government.

<i>The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex</i> 1871 book by Charles Darwin

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex is a book by English naturalist Charles Darwin, first published in 1871, which applies evolutionary theory to human evolution, and details his theory of sexual selection, a form of biological adaptation distinct from, yet interconnected with, natural selection. The book discusses many related issues, including evolutionary psychology, evolutionary ethics, evolutionary musicology, differences between human races, differences between sexes, the dominant role of women in mate choice, and the relevance of the evolutionary theory to society.

<i>Critique of Judgment</i> 1790 book by Immanuel Kant

The Critique of Judgment, also translated as the Critique of the Power of Judgment, is a 1790 book by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Sometimes referred to as the "third critique", the Critique of Judgment follows the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and the Critique of Practical Reason (1788).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">George Combe</span> Scottish lawyer and phrenologist (1788–1858)

George Combe was a Scottish lawyer and a spokesman of the phrenological movement for over 20 years. He founded the Edinburgh Phrenological Society in 1820 and wrote The Constitution of Man (1828). After marriage in 1833, Combe devoted his later years to promoting phrenology internationally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andrew Combe</span> Scottish physician and phrenologist

Andrew Combe was a Scottish physician and phrenologist.

<i>Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</i> 1844 work by Robert Chamber

Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation is an 1844 work of speculative natural history and philosophy by Robert Chambers. Published anonymously in England, it brought together various ideas of stellar evolution with the progressive transmutation of species in an accessible narrative which tied together numerous scientific theories of the age.

<i>A Treatise of Human Nature</i> Work by David Hume

A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects (1739–40) is a book by Scottish philosopher David Hume, considered by many to be Hume's most important work and one of the most influential works in the history of philosophy. The Treatise is a classic statement of philosophical empiricism, scepticism, and naturalism. In the introduction Hume presents the idea of placing all science and philosophy on a novel foundation: namely, an empirical investigation into human nature. Impressed by Isaac Newton's achievements in the physical sciences, Hume sought to introduce the same experimental method of reasoning into the study of human psychology, with the aim of discovering the "extent and force of human understanding". Against the philosophical rationalists, Hume argues that the passions, rather than reason, cause human behaviour. He introduces the famous problem of induction, arguing that inductive reasoning and our beliefs regarding cause and effect cannot be justified by reason; instead, our faith in induction and causation is caused by mental habit and custom. Hume defends a sentimentalist account of morality, arguing that ethics is based on sentiment and the passions rather than reason, and famously declaring that "reason is, and ought only to be the slave to the passions". Hume also offers a sceptical theory of personal identity and a compatibilist account of free will.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edinburgh Phrenological Society</span> Learned society for phrenology

The Edinburgh Phrenological Society was founded in 1820 by George Combe, an Edinburgh lawyer, with his physician brother Andrew Combe. The Edinburgh Society was the first and foremost phrenology grouping in Great Britain; more than forty phrenological societies followed in other parts of the British Isles. The Society's influence was greatest over its first two decades but declined in the 1840s; the final meeting was recorded in 1870.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoicism</span> Philosophical system

Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The Stoics believed that the practice of virtue is enough to achieve eudaimonia: a well-lived, flourishing life. The Stoics identified the path to achieving it with a life spent practicing certain virtues in everyday life such as courage or temperance and living in accordance with nature. It was founded in the ancient Agora of Athens by Zeno of Citium around 300 BC.

John van Wyhe is a British historian of science, with a focus on Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, at the National University of Singapore. He holds various academic and research positions, ranging from founder and director of The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online, Scientific Associate, The Natural History Museum (London), a Fellow of the Linnean Society and a Member of the British Society for the History of Science. He has given more than 50 public lectures on Darwin in more than a dozen countries. He lectures and broadcasts on Darwin, evolution, science and religion and the history of science around the world. He also wrote The Darwin Experience, a biographical book about Charles Darwin.

Henry Shipton Drayton (1840–1923) was an American physician and phrenologist. He defended the now obsolete theories that one could predict the personality of human beings based on cranial features and that some humans had a sixth sense.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Cox (Scottish lawyer)</span> British lawyer

Robert Cox WS (1810–1872) was a Scottish lawyer, known as a writer of several works on the question of the Christian Sabbath, and a phrenologist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boston Phrenological Society</span>

The Boston Phrenological Society was formed in 1832 upon the death of a prominent continental phrenologist, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim. Spurzheim was an anatomist and a former pupil of Franz Josef Gall. Spurzheim's brief tour and death popularized phrenology in the United States outside of its controversial place in medical lecture halls, and into the sphere of social reformers and ministers. The Society's formation launched the phrenology movement in the United States. The Boston Phrenological Society was founded by phrenology adherent Nahum Capen on the day of Spurzheim's funeral, November 17, 1832.

The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare was a British journal, devoted to the promotion of the theories and practices of the pseudoscientific concepts of mesmerism and phrenology, and the enterprise of "connecting and harmonizing practical science with little understood laws governing the mental structure of man". The name derived from the Greek word Zoe (ζωή) meaning "life". The Zoist was published quarterly, without a break, for fifteen years: from March 1843 until January 1856.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scottish philosophy</span> History of philosophy in Scotland

Scottish philosophy is a philosophical tradition created by philosophers belonging to Scottish universities. Although many philosophers such as Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Thomas Reid, and Adam Smith are familiar to almost all philosophers it was not until the 19th century that the notion of 'Scottish philosophy' became recognized and held to high regard on an international level. In the 20th century, however, this tradition declined as Scottish educated philosophers left for England.

References

  1. 1 2 Parssinen, T. M. (1974-01-01). "Popular Science and Society: The Phrenology Movement in Early Victorian Britain". Journal of Social History. 8 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1353/jsh/8.1.1. JSTOR   3786523. PMID   11632363.
  2. ↑ Gibbon, Charles (1878). The Life of George Combe, author of "The Constitution of Man". London: Macmillan and Co. p. 211.
  3. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The constitution of man considered in relation to external objects. Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 142. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  4. ↑ Secord, James A. (2015). Visions of Science Books and Readers at the Dawn of the Victorian Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 193. ISBN   9780226203287. OCLC   923634059.
  5. ↑ Wright, Peter (2005-01-01). "George Combe – Phrenologist, Philosopher, Psychologist (1788-1858)". Cortex. 41 (4): 447–451. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70185-0. PMID   16042021. S2CID   4486798.
  6. 1 2 Walsh, Anthony A. (1971-07-01). "George Combe: A portrait of a heretofore generally unknown behaviorist". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 7 (3): 269–278. doi:10.1002/1520-6696(197107)7:3<269::aid-jhbs2300070305>3.0.co;2-6. ISSN   1520-6696. PMID   11609418.
  7. 1 2 Combe, George (1974-01-01). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. pp. viii. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  8. ↑ Combe, George (1974-01-01). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 2. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  9. ↑ Combe, George (1974-01-01). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  10. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. pp. 5–6. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  11. ↑ Combe, George (1974-01-01). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 6. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  12. 1 2 Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 7. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  13. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 13. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  14. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 29. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  15. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 101. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  16. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 102. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  17. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. pp. 107–108. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  18. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 108. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  19. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Object. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 181. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  20. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 198. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  21. ↑ Combe, George (1974). The Constitution of Man Considered in Relation to External Objects. Delmar, New York: Scholar's Facsimiles and Reprints. p. 204. ISBN   9780820111360. OCLC   311210565.
  22. ↑ McLaren, Angus (1974). "Phrenology: Medium and Message". The Journal of Modern History. 46 (1): 86–97. doi:10.1086/241166. S2CID   143905205.
  23. ↑ Secord, James A. (2015). Visions of science : books and readers at the dawn of the Victorian age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. xiii. ISBN   9780226203287. OCLC   874729231.
  24. ↑ Topham, Jonathan (1992). "Science and popular education in the 1830s: the role of the Bridgewater Treatises†". The British Journal for the History of Science. 25 (4): 397–430. doi:10.1017/S0007087400029587. ISSN   1474-001X. PMID   11612912. S2CID   46185372.
  25. ↑ Secord, James A. (2014). Visions of science : books and readers at the dawn of the Victorian age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. xiv. ISBN   9780226203287. OCLC   874729231.
  26. 1 2 3 Wright, Peter (2005-01-01). "George Combe – Phrenologist, Philosopher, Psychologist (1788-1858)". Cortex. 41 (4): 447–451. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70185-0. PMID   16042021. S2CID   4486798.
  27. ↑ S., Staum, Martin (2003-01-01). Labeling people : French scholars on society, race and empire, 1815-1848. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN   9780773525801. OCLC   978188201.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ↑ Secord, James A. (2015). Visions of Science: books and readers at the dawn of the Victorian age. Chciago: University of Chicago Press. pp. xii. ISBN   9780226203287. OCLC   874729231.
  29. ↑ Grant, A. Cameron (1965). "Combe on Phrenology and Free will: A Note on XIXth-Century Secularism". Journal of the History of Ideas. 26 (1): 141–147. doi:10.2307/2708406. JSTOR   2708406.
  30. ↑ Secord, James A. (2015). Visions of Science: books and readers at the dawn of the Victorian age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. xi. ISBN   9780226203287. OCLC   874729231.
  31. ↑ Postlethwaite, Diana (1984). Making it whole : a Victorian circle and the shape of their world . Ohio State University Press. ISBN   978-0814203729. OCLC   11211189.
  32. ↑ Secord, James A. (2015). Visions of Science: books and readers at the dawn of the Victorian age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. x. ISBN   9780226203287. OCLC   874729231.
  33. ↑ Cutler, William W. (2006-03-01). "Head Masters: Phrenology, Secular Education, and Nineteenth-Century Social Thought". Journal of American History. 92 (4): 1429–1430. doi:10.2307/4485929. ISSN   0021-8723. JSTOR   4485929.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.