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Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, public or jurisdictional demands for justice by capital punishment, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein a monarch's servants are killed in order for them to continue to serve their master in the next life. Closely related practices found in some tribal societies are cannibalism and headhunting. Human sacrifice is also known as ritual murder.
Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of one or more animals, usually as part of a religious ritual or to appease or maintain favour with a deity. Animal sacrifices were common throughout Europe and the Ancient Near East until the spread of Christianity in Late Antiquity, and continue in some cultures or religions today. Human sacrifice, where it existed, was always much rarer.
Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule.
Headhunting is the practice of hunting a human and collecting the severed head after killing the victim, although sometimes more portable body parts are taken instead as trophies. Headhunting was practiced in historic times in parts of Europe, East Asia, Oceania, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Mesoamerica, South America, West Africa, and Central Africa.
There are varying beliefs about cattle in societies and religions.
Sati was a historical practice in Hindu communities in which a widow sacrifices herself by sitting atop her deceased husband's funeral pyre. Although it is debated whether it received scriptural mention in early Hinduism, it has been linked to related Hindu practices in the Indo-Aryan-speaking regions of India. Greek sources from around 300 BCE make isolated mention of sati, but it probably developed into a real fire sacrifice in the medieval era within the northwestern Rajput clans to which it initially remained limited, to become more widespread during the late medieval era.
Jauhar, sometimes spelled Jowhar or Juhar, was a Hindu Rajput practice of mass self-immolation by females, both adults and children, in the Indian subcontinent to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by Turko-Persian Islamic invaders when facing certain defeat during a war. Some reports of jauhar mention women committing self-immolation along with their children. This practice was historically observed in the northwest regions of India, with most famous jauhars in recorded history occurring during wars between Hindu Rajput kingdoms in Rajasthan and the opposing Turko-Persian Muslim armies. Jauhar was only performed during war, usually when there was no chance of victory. The term jauhar often connotes jauhar-immolation. Jauhar involved Hindu Rajput women committing suicide with their children and valuables in a massive fire, in order to avoid capture and abuse in the face of inescapable military defeat. At the same time or shortly thereafter, the men would ritualistically march to the battlefield expecting certain death, which in the regional tradition is called saka. This practice was intended to show that those committing it valued their honor more highly than their lives.
Old Norse religion, also known as Norse paganism, is a branch of Germanic religion which developed during the Proto-Norse period, when the North Germanic peoples separated into a distinct branch of the Germanic peoples. It was replaced by Christianity and forgotten during the Christianisation of Scandinavia. Scholars reconstruct aspects of North Germanic Religion by historical linguistics, archaeology, toponymy, and records left by North Germanic peoples, such as runic inscriptions in the Younger Futhark, a distinctly North Germanic extension of the runic alphabet. Numerous Old Norse works dated to the 13th-century record Norse mythology, a component of North Germanic religion.
Animal worship is an umbrella term designating religious or ritual practices involving animals. This includes the worship of animal deities or animal sacrifice. An animal 'cult' is formed when a species is taken to represent a religious figure. Animal cults can be classified according to their formal features or by their symbolic content.
Roman funerary practices include the Ancient Romans' religious rituals concerning funerals, cremations, and burials. They were part of time-hallowed tradition, the unwritten code from which Romans derived their social norms. Elite funeral rites, especially processions and public eulogies, gave the family opportunity to publicly celebrate the life and deeds of the deceased, their ancestors, and the family's standing in the community. Sometimes the political elite gave costly public feasts, games and popular entertainments after family funerals, to honour the departed and to maintain their own public profile and reputation for generosity. The Roman gladiator games began as funeral gifts for the deceased in high status families.
Norse funerals, or the burial customs of Viking Age North Germanic Norsemen, are known both from archaeology and from historical accounts such as the Icelandic sagas and Old Norse poetry.
The Thracian religion comprised the mythology, ritual practices and beliefs of the Thracians, a collection of closely related ancient Indo-European peoples who inhabited eastern and southeastern Europe and northwestern Anatolia throughout antiquity and who included the Thracians proper, the Getae, the Dacians, and the Bithynians. The Thracians themselves did not leave an extensive written corpus of their mythology and rituals, but information about their beliefs is nevertheless available through epigraphic and iconographic sources, as well as through ancient Greek writings.
Minoan religion was the religion of the Bronze Age Minoan civilization of Crete. In the absence of readable texts from most of the period, modern scholars have reconstructed it almost totally on the basis of archaeological evidence of such as Minoan paintings, statuettes, vessels for rituals and seals and rings. Minoan religion is considered to have been closely related to Near Eastern ancient religions, and its central deity is generally agreed to have been a goddess, although a number of deities are now generally thought to have been worshipped. Prominent Minoan sacred symbols include the bull and the horns of consecration, the labrys double-headed axe, and possibly the serpent.
Hmong people have a culture built on animistic beliefs and a strong faith that after death the soul reincarnates as one of many forms such as humans, plants, rocks and ghosts. Death is often considered the most important time for practicing rituals in the Hmong community because without practicing the necessary rituals the soul will roam for eternity. Hmong culture has been around for thousands of years and some of the rituals have slightly changed due to immigration and urbanization. Throughout time rituals have always varied from tribe to tribe therefore there is no one-way of performing the pre-funeral rituals, the burial rituals and the post burial rituals. However, the differences are minor and are aimed at achieving the same goal of reincarnation.
The Scythian religion refers to the mythology, ritual practices and beliefs of the Scythian cultures, a collection of closely related ancient Iranic peoples who inhabited Central Asia and the Pontic–Caspian steppe in Eastern Europe throughout Classical Antiquity, spoke the Scythian language, and which included the Scythians proper, the Cimmerians, the Sarmatians, the Alans, the Sindi, the Massagetae and the Saka.
During the Pre-Hispanic period the early Filipinos believed in a concept of life after death. This belief, which stemmed from indigenous ancestral veneration and was strengthened by strong family and community relations within tribes, prompted the Filipinos to create burial customs to honor the dead through prayers and rituals. Due to different cultures from various regions of the Philippines, many different burial practices have emerged. For example, the Manobos buried their dead in trees, the Ifugaos seated the corpse on a chari before it was brought to a cave and buried elsewhere. The most common forms of traditional burials are supine pits, earthenware jars, and log coffins, and have been a topic of interest among Philippine archaeologists since the early 20th century.
Ancient Greek funerary practices are attested widely in literature, the archaeological record, and in ancient Greek art. Finds associated with burials are an important source for ancient Greek culture, though Greek funerals are not as well documented as those of the ancient Romans.
Horse burial is the practice of burying a horse as part of the ritual of human burial, and is found among many Indo-European speaking peoples and others, including Chinese and Turkic peoples. The act indicates the high value placed on horses in the particular cultures and provides evidence of the migration of peoples with a horse culture. Human burials that contain other livestock are rare; in Britain, for example, 31 horse burials have been discovered but only one cow burial, unique in Europe. This process of horse burial is part of a wider tradition of horse sacrifice. An associated ritual is that of chariot burial, in which an entire chariot, with or without a horse, is buried with a dead person.
The Scythian culture was an Iron Age archaeological culture which flourished on the Pontic-Caspian steppe in Eastern Europe from about 700 BC to 200 AD. It is associated with the Scythians, Cimmerians, and other peoples inhabiting the region of Scythia, and was part of the wider Scytho-Siberian world.
The Efik religion is based on the traditional beliefs of the Efik people of southern Nigeria. The traditional religious beliefs of the Efik are not systemised into a logical orthodoxy but consists of diverse conceptions such as worship of the supreme God, ancestral veneration, cleansing rituals and funeral rites.
References
- ↑ Oldest human sacrifice discovered in Africa, 16 February 2008
- 1 2 3 The Comparison between Human Sacrifice in Egypt and that in China
- ↑ Saraceni, Jessica Esther. "5,000-Year-Old Tomb Excavated in Turkey - Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. Retrieved 2023-06-13.
- ↑ Human sacrifice and intentional corpse preservation in the Royal Cemetery of Ur, March 2011
- ↑ Dying to serve: Human sacrifice during the Classic Kerma Period, January 2009
- 1 2 Treasures of the Scythian Kings
- ↑ Thracian Child Sacrifice Discovered in Bulgaria, 21 April 2015
- ↑ ON HUMAN SACRIFICE IN THRACE (ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE), 10 January 2010
- ↑ Themistocles Allegedly Conducted A Human Sacrifice Before The Battle of Salamis, 10 December 2019
- 1 2 3 4 Ritual Killing in Ancient Rome: Homicide and Roman Superiority
- ↑ Double Death, 25 September 2000
- ↑ Tsuda, Noritake (1918). "Human Sacrifices in Japan". The Open Court. 1918 (12): 760–761.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Sati Custom in Nepal: A Historical Perspective
- ↑ Fifth-Century Remains May Be Evidence of Human Sacrifice in Ancient Korea, 24 May 2017
- 1 2 RETAINER SACRIFICE IN EGYPT AND IN NUBIA
- ↑ Wulfram
- ↑ "Why Were Human Sacrifices Buried Beneath Ancient Korea's 'Moon Castle'?". 15 October 2021.
- ↑ Dalton, G. F. (1970). "The Ritual Killing of the Irish Kings". Folklore. 81 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1970.9716657. JSTOR 1258426.
- ↑ The chronicles of Kent. Lib. Smith. 1844.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Human Sacrifice in Pre-Colonial West Africa
- ↑ An Outsider’s Account of Viking Death Rituals, 19 September 2022
- ↑ A ritual site with sacrificial wells from the Viking Age at Trelleborg, Denmark
- ↑ Human Sacrifice
- ↑ Revitalization Movements in Kievan Russia
- ↑ "Harmonia Time Capsule: 1066", Harmonia,Indiana University, 13 February 2012
- ↑ The Pagan Priests of Early Russia: Some New Insights
- ↑ Archaeologists find human sacrificial pit in Inner Mongolia, 24 December 2018
- ↑ Crusader art in the Holy Land : from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre, 1187-1291
- ↑ Jones-Bley, Karlene; Huld, Martin E. (1996). The Indo-Europeanization of northern Europe. Institute for the Study of Man. p. 362. ISBN 0-941694-53-4
- ↑ Rowell, Stephen Christopher; Baronas, Darius (2015). The conversion of Lithuania: from pagan barbarians to late medieval Christians. Vilnius: Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. p. 333. ISBN 9786094251528 . Retrieved 4 March 2023.
- ↑ 孙冰 (2010). "明代宫妃殉葬制度与明朝"祖制"". 《华中师范大学研究生学报》 (4). Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
按太祖孝陵。凡妃殡四十人。俱身殉从葬。仅二人葬陵之东西。盖洪武中先殁者。
- ↑ 李晗 (2014). "明清宫人殉葬制度研究". 《山东师范大学》. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
- ↑ Htin Aung 1967: 117–118
- ↑ Quid pro quo between Altan Khan and Dalai Lama : For enlightenment of society, 1 August 2022
- ↑ Hiến sinh người: Nhìn từ sử Việt
- ↑ Nzinga abre guerra contra os portugueses (Parte 2)
- 1 2 Human Sacrifice in Bali: Sources, Notes, and Commentary
- ↑ THE ORIGIN AND MEANING OF THE THAI 'CITY PILLAR'
- ↑ How China’s history of human sacrifice led to Ching Ming Festival’s paper offerings, 4 April 2018
- ↑ Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd
- ↑ Thompson 1988, p. 35. Bracamonte y Sosa 2001, p. 368.
- ↑ Jones 1998, pp. 227–228, 303.
- ↑ Jones 1998, pp. 233, 479n59.
- ↑ Callet, François (1908). Tantara ny andriana eto Madagasikara (histoire des rois) (in French). Antananarivo: Imprimerie catholique.
- ↑ Part I Ritual killings: Before 1847
- ↑ Hamilton, Janice (2004). Ivory Coast in Pictures . Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 23. ISBN 978-0-8225-1992-8.
- ↑ Police arrest four over child sacrifice, 11 February 2010
- ↑ Possibly the Last Human Sacrifice, 2016
- ↑ Rituals of Sacrifice in Early Post-European Contact Tonga and Tahiti
- ↑ Mariner, William; Martin, John (1817). An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific Ocean, with an original grammar and vocabulary of their language. Vol. 2. London, UK. p. 220.
- ↑ Hyde, George. The Pawnee Indians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. ISBN 0-8061-2094-0 pp. 19–359
- 1 2 HUMAN SACRIFICE AT THE DEATH OF A CHIEF
- ↑ Human Sacrifice at Prambanan
- ↑ Human Sacrifice among the Khonds of Orissa C.1836-1861: A Study
- ↑ "last+HUMAN+sacrifice"&pg=PA33&printsec=frontcover Robert Louis Stevenson’s Pacific Impressions
- ↑ pre-Columbian civilizations
- ↑ Memory Eternal: Orthodox Christianity and the Tlingit Mortuary Complex
- ↑ ROYALLY SPONSORED HUMAN SACRIFICES IN NINETEENTH CENTURY CAMBODIA
- ↑ "last+HUMAN+sacrifice"&pg=PA82&printsec=frontcover Catastrophe and Creation The Transformation of an African Culture
- ↑ Pico de Orizaba, Or, Citlaltepetl
- ↑ Central Borneo Ethnic Identity and Social Life in a Stratified Society
- ↑ Mortuary Rituals and the Suttee among Mapuche Chiefdoms ofPampa-Patagonia: The Double Human Burial of Chimpay (Argentina)
- ↑ Slavery and human sacrifice in Yorubaland: Ondo, c. 1870-94, November 2005
- 1 2 3 Medicine Murder in Colonial Lesotho
- ↑ Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960
- ↑ 27 Feb 1909 HUMAN SACRIFICE IN THE PHILIPPINES
- ↑ 'Divine Kings': Sex, Death and Anthropology in Inter-War East/Central Africa
- ↑ Lattimore, Owen; Nachukdorji, Sh (1955). "THE PROBLEM OF PERSONALITY: SKETCHES OF TWO CAREERS". Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia. Brill Archive. p. 61.
- ↑ "as+recently+as+1915"&source=bl&ots=ABj2shMKWr&sig=ACfU3U1OYnwWMjDf1HHRgtYTfyYr_F8Faw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwihrrLfmreBAxV9hf0HHQtvDIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q=kamuku%20territory%20"as%20recently%20as%201915"&f=false Peoples of the Middle Niger Region Northern Nigeria: Western Africa
- ↑ A Sacrifice for Rain. Chief's Son Burnt. Rhodesian Natives Sentenced
- ↑ From Blood to Oil: Mining, Cosmology, and Human Sacrifice in Central New Guinea
- 1 2 3 4 Human Sacrifice and Slavery in the "Unadministered" Areas of Upper Burma During the Colonial Era
- ↑ Religious Revival as Reaction to the Hegemonization of Power in Siberia in the 1920s to 1940s
- ↑ CULTES AGRAIRES ET RELATIONS D'AUTORITÉ CHEZ LES SABA (HADJERAï DU TCHAD)
- ↑ A Chieftaincy Dispute and Ritual Murder in Elmina, Ghana, 1945-6
- ↑ Aimé Muyoboke Karimunda (16 March 2016). The Death Penalty in Africa: The Path Towards Abolition. Taylor & Francis. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-1-317-03633-3.
- ↑ New Guinea Cargo Cult Plans Human Sacrifice to Find Wealth, 23 May 1971
- ↑ Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice Vinticated?
- ↑ Medicinal Practices (MMPs) of Mayong, Assam
- ↑ Human sacrifice of woman discovered in Gabon, 25 July 1990
- ↑ Sierra Leone: Special Court indicts two former militia leaders, 27 June 2003
- ↑ "President commutes Jharkhand resident's death penalty to life | India News - Times of India". The Times of India. TNN. Feb 21, 2012. Retrieved 2023-01-08.
- ↑ "Sushil Murmu vs State Of Jharkhand on 12 December, 2003".
- ↑ Human sacrifice cult battles with police, 10 May 2007
- ↑ Ritual killings increasing in lead-up to Gabon polls, 29 March 2008
- ↑ Saving Ethiopian Children Thought to Be Cursed, 25 July 2019
- ↑ PNG's 'Black Jesus' castrated after cult sacrifices, 2 September 2013
- ↑ 11 suspects convicted of human sacrifice in Nawalparasi, 30 August 2016
- ↑ Letter dated 6 December 2019 from the Panel of Experts on the Central African Republic extended pursuant to resolution 2454 (2019) addressed to the President of the Security Council
- ↑ Parliament enacts law against human sacrifice, 4 May 2021
- ↑ "Body parts chopped, cooked, eaten: Human sacrifice ritual stuns Kerala". indiatoday.in. 12 October 2022.
- ↑ "Six-year-old killed by two men in south Delhi to 'appease deity'". Hindustan Times. 2022-10-02. Retrieved 2023-01-08.