From Molossia, Themistocles apparently fled to Pydna, from where he took a ship for Asia Minor. [95] [96] This ship was blown off course by a storm, and ended up at Naxos, which an Athenian fleet was in the process of besieging. [95] [96] Desperate to avoid the legal authorities, Themistocles, who had been traveling under an assumed identity, revealed himself to the captain and said that if he did not reach safety he would tell the Athenians that he'd bribed the ship to take him. [95] [96] According to Thucydides, who wrote within living memory of the events, the ship eventually landed safely at Ephesus, where Themistocles disembarked. [96] Plutarch has the ship docking at Cyme in Aeolia, [97] and Diodorus has Themistocles making his way to Asia in an undefined manner. [94] Diodorus and Plutarch next recount a similar tale, namely that Themistocles stayed briefly with an acquaintance (Lysitheides or Nicogenes) who was also acquainted with the Persian king, Artaxerxes I. [94] [97] Since there was a bounty on Themistocles's head, this acquaintance devised a plan to safely convey Themistocles to the Persian king in the type of covered wagon that the King's concubines travelled in. [94] [97] All three chroniclers agree that Themistocles's next move was to contact the Persian king; in Thucydides, this is by letter, [96] while Plutarch and Diodorus have a face-to-face meeting with the king. [94] [97] The spirit is, however, the same in all three: Themistocles introduces himself to the king and seeks to enter his service: [96] [98]
I, Themistocles, am come to you, who did your house more harm than any of the Hellenes, when I was compelled to defend myself against your father's invasion—harm, however, far surpassed by the good that I did him during his retreat, which brought no danger for me but much for him. (Thucydides)
Thucydides and Plutarch say that Themistocles asked for a year's grace to learn the Persian language and customs, after which he would serve the king, and Artaxerxes granted this. [96] [100] Plutarch reports that, as might be imagined, Artaxerxes was elated that such a dangerous and illustrious foe had come to serve him. [101]
At some point in his travels, Themistocles's wife and children were extricated from Athens by a friend, and joined him in exile. [93] His friends also managed to send him many of his belongings, although up to 100 talents worth of his goods were confiscated by the Athenians. [95] When, after a year, Themistocles returned to the king's court, he appears to have made an immediate impact, and "he attained ... very high consideration there, such as no Hellene has ever possessed before or since". [102] Plutarch recounts that "honors he enjoyed were far beyond those paid to other foreigners; nay, he actually took part in the King's hunts and in his household diversions". [100] Themistocles advised the king on his dealings with the Greeks, although it seems that for a long period, the king was distracted by events elsewhere in the empire, and thus Themistocles "lived on for a long time without concern". [102] [103] He was made governor of the district of Magnesia on the Maeander River in Asia Minor, and assigned the revenues of three cities: Magnesia (about 50 talents per year—"for bread"); Myus ("for opson"); and Lampsacus ("for wine"). [100] [102] [104] According to Plutarch, Neanthes of Cyzicus and Phanias reported two more, the city of Palaescepsis ("for clothes") and the city of Percote ("for bedding and furniture for his house"), both near Lampsacus. [105]
Greek exiles in the Achaemenid Empire
Themistocles was one of the several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in the Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other famous ones being Hippias, Demaratos, Gongylos or later Alcibiades. [106] In general, those were generously welcomed by the Achaemenid kings, received land grants to support them, and ruled over cities throughout Asia Minor. [106] Conversely, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles in western courts, such as Artabazos II. [107] [108]
First portraiture of a ruler on coinage
Coins are the only contemporary documents remaining from the time of Themistocles. [109] Although many coins in antiquity illustrated the images of various gods or symbols, the first portraiture of actual rulers only appears in the 5th century BC. Themistocles was probably the first ruler ever to issue coinage with his personal portrait, as he became Achaemenid Governor of Magnesia in 465–459 BC. [112] Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynast who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished. [113] Still, there is some doubt that his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself. [114]
During his lifetime, Themistocles is known to have erected two statues to himself, one in Athens, and the other in Magnesia, which would lend credence to the possibility that he also illustrated himself on his coins. [115] The Themistocles statue in Magnesia was illustrated on the reverse of some of the Magnesian coins of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius in the 2nd century. [115]
The rulers of Lycia followed towards the end of the 5th century as the most prolific and unambiguous producers of coins displaying the portrait of their rulers. [117] [118] From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage. [118]
Death
Themistocles died at Magnesia in 459 BC aged 65, according to Thucydides, from natural causes. [4] [102] However, perhaps inevitably, there were also rumours surrounding his death, saying that unwilling to follow the Great King's order to make war on Athens, he committed suicide by taking poison, or drinking bull's blood. [4] [102] [103] [119] Plutarch provides the most evocative version of this story:
But when Egypt revolted with Athenian aid...and Cimon's mastery of the sea forced the King to resist the efforts of the Hellenes and to hinder their hostile growth...messages came down to Themistocles saying that the King commanded him to make good his promises by applying himself to the Hellenic problem; then, neither embittered by anything like anger against his former fellow-citizens, nor lifted up by the great honor and power he was to have in the war, but possibly thinking his task not even approachable, both because Hellas had other great generals at the time, and especially because Cimon was so marvelously successful in his campaigns; yet most of all out of regard for the reputation of his own achievements and the trophies of those early days; having decided that his best course was to put a fitting end to his life, he made a sacrifice to the gods, then called his friends together, gave them a farewell clasp of his hand, and, as the current story goes, drank bull's blood, or as some say, took a quick poison, and so died in Magnesia, in the sixty-fifth year of his life...They say that the King, on learning the cause and the manner of his death, admired the man yet more, and continued to treat his friends and kindred with kindness. [103]
It was rumored that after his death, Themistocles's bones were transported to Attica in accordance with his wishes, and buried in his native soil in secret, it being illegal to bury an Athenian traitor in Attica. [102] The Magnesians built a "splendid tomb" in their marketplace for Themistocles, which still stood during the time of Plutarch, and continued to dedicate part of their revenues to the family of Themistocles. [12] Nepos in the 1st century BC wrote about a statue of Themistocles visible in the forum of Magnesia. [121] [122] The statue also appears on a coin type of Roman emperor Antoninus Pius minted in Magnesia in the 2nd century CE. [115] [116]
Succession and descendants
Archeptolis, son of Themistocles, became a Governor of Magnesia after his father's death c. 459 BCE. [124] [125] [126] [127] Archeptolis also minted his own silver coinage as he ruled Magnesia, and it is probable that part of his revenues continued to be handed over to the Achaemenids in exchange for the maintenance of their territorial grant. [125] [127] Themistocles and his son formed what some authors have called "a Greek dynasty in the Persian Empire". [128]
From a second wife, Themistocles also had a daughter named Mnesiptolema, whom he appointed as priestess of the Temple of Dindymene in Magnesia, with the title of "Mother of the Gods". [121] Mnesiptolema would eventually marry her half-brother Archeptolis, homopatric (but not homometric) marriages being permitted in Athens. [129]
Themistocles also had several other daughters, named Nicomache, Asia, Italia, Sybaris, and probably Hellas, who married the Greek exile in Persia Gongylos and still had a fief in Persian Anatolia in 400/399 BC as his widow. [121]
Themistocles also had three other sons, Diocles, Polyeucteus and Cleophantus, the latter possibly a ruler of Lampsacus. [121] One of the descendants of Cleophantus still issued a decree in Lampsacus around 200 BC mentioning a feast for his own father, also named Themistocles, who had greatly benefited the city. [130] Later, Pausanias wrote that the sons of Themistocles "appear to have returned to Athens", and that they dedicated a painting of Themistocles in the Parthenon and erected a bronze statue to Artemis Leucophryene, the goddess of Magnesia, on the Acropolis. [131] [132] [133] They may have returned from Asia Minor in old age, after 412 BC, when the Achaemenids took again firm control of the Greek cities of Asia, and they may have been expelled by the Achaemenid satrap Tissaphernes sometime between 412 and 399 BC. [131] In effect, from 414 BC, Darius II had started to resent increasing Athenian power in the Aegean and had Tissaphernes enter into an alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led to the Persian conquest of the greater part of Ionia. [134]
Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, indicates that he met in Athens a lineal descendant of Themistocles (also called Themistocles) who was still being paid revenues from Asia Minor, 600 years after the events in question. [12]
Assessments
Character
It is possible to draw some conclusions about Themistocles's character. Perhaps his most evident trait was his massive ambition; "In his ambition he surpassed all men"; [21] "he hankered after public office rather as a man in delirium might crave a cure". [20] He was proud and vain, [35] and anxious for recognition of his deeds. [135] His relationship with power was of a particularly personal nature; while he undoubtedly desired the best for Athens, many of his actions also seem to have been made in self-interest. [20] He also appears to have been corrupt (at least by modern standards), and was known for his fondness of bribes. [25]
Yet, set against these negative traits, was an apparently natural brilliance and talent for leadership: [20]
- Themistocles was a man who exhibited the most indubitable signs of genius; indeed, in this particular he has a claim on our admiration quite extraordinary and unparalleled. By his own native capacity, alike unformed and unsupplemented by study, he was at once the best judge in those sudden crises which admit of little or of no deliberation, and the best prophet of the future, even to its most distant possibilities. An able theoretical expositor of all that came within the sphere of his practice, he was not without the power of passing an adequate judgment in matters in which he had no experience. He could also excellently divine the good and evil which lay hid in the unseen future. In fine, whether we consider the extent of his natural powers, or the slightness of his application, this extraordinary man must be allowed to have surpassed all others in the faculty of intuitively meeting an emergency. [102]
Both Herodotus and Plato record variations of an anecdote in which Themistocles responded with subtle sarcasm to an undistinguished man who complained that the great politician owed his fame merely to the fact that he came from Athens. As Herodotus tells it:
- Timodemus of Aphidnae, who was one of Themistocles's enemies but not a man of note, was crazed with envy and spoke bitterly to Themistocles of his visit to Lacedaemon, saying that the honors he had from the Lacedaemonians were paid him for Athens' sake and not for his own. This he kept saying until Themistocles replied, 'This is the truth of the matter: if I had been a man of Belbina I would not have been honored in this way by the Spartans, nor would you, sir, for all you are a man of Athens.' Such was the end of that business. [136]
As Plato tells it, the heckler hails from the small island of Seriphus; Themistocles retorts that it is true that he would not have been famous if he had come from that small island, but that the heckler would not have been famous either if he had been born in Athens. [137]
Themistocles was undoubtedly intelligent, but also possessed natural cunning; "the workings of his mind [were] infinitely mobile and serpentine". [20] Themistocles was evidently sociable and appears to have enjoyed strong personal loyalty from his friends. [20] [93] At any rate, it seems to have been Themistocles's particular mix of virtues and vices that made him such an effective politician. [20]
Historical reputation
Themistocles died with his reputation in tatters, a traitor to the Athenian people; the "saviour of Greece" had turned into the enemy of liberty. [138] However, his reputation in Athens was rehabilitated by Pericles in the 450s BC, and by the time Herodotus wrote his history, Themistocles was once again seen as a hero. [139] Thucydides evidently held Themistocles in some esteem, and is uncharacteristically flattering in his praise for him (see above). [102] Diodorus also extensively praises Themistocles, going as far as to offer a rationale for the length at which he discusses him: "Now on the subject of the high merits of Themistocles, even if we have dwelt over-long on the subject in this digression, we believed it not seemly that we should leave his great ability unrecorded." [140] Indeed, Diodorus, whose history includes Alexander the Great and Hannibal, goes so far as to say that
But if any man, putting envy aside, will estimate closely not only the man's natural gifts but also his achievements, he will find that on both counts Themistocles holds first place among all of whom we have record. Therefore, one may well be amazed that the Athenians were willing to rid themselves of a man of such genius. [119]
Plutarch offers a more nuanced view of Themistocles, with more of a critique of Themistocles's character. He does not detract from Themistocles's achievements, but also highlights his failings. [26]
Napoleon compared himself to Themistocles after the Battle of Waterloo, in his surrender letter;
Royal Highness, – Exposed to the factions which divide my country, and to the enmity of the great Powers of Europe, I have terminated my political career; and I come, like Themistocles, to throw myself upon the hospitality (m'asseoir sur le foyer) of the British people. I claim from your Royal Highness the protections of the laws, and throw myself upon the most powerful, the most constant, and the most generous of my enemies.|Napoleon. (letter of surrender to the Prince Regent; translation). [141]
Political and military legacy
Undoubtedly the greatest achievement of Themistocles's career was his role in the defeat of Xerxes' invasion of Greece. Against overwhelming odds, Greece survived, and classical Greek culture, so influential in Western civilization, was able to develop unabated. [142] Moreover, Themistocles's doctrine of Athenian naval power, and the establishment of Athens as a major power in the Greek world, were of enormous consequence during the 5th century BC. In 478 BC, the Hellenic alliance was reconstituted without the Peloponnesian states into the Delian League, in which Athens was the dominant power. [143] This was essentially a maritime alliance of Athens and her colonies, the Aegean islands, and the Ionian cities. The Delian league took the war to Persia, eventually invading Persian territory and dominating the Aegean. [143] Under Pericles' guidance, the Delian league evolved into the Athenian Empire, the zenith of Athenian power and influence. [144] [ self-published source? ] Themistocles seems to have deliberately set Athens up as a rival to Sparta in the aftermath of Xerxes' invasion, basing this strategy on Athenian naval power (contrasted with the power of the Spartan army). [23] Tension grew throughout the century between Athens and Sparta, as they competed to be the leading state in Greece. [145] Finally, in 431 BC, this tension erupted into the Peloponnesian War, the first of a series of conflicts that tore Greece apart for the next century. [145] [146]
Diodorus provides a rhetorical summary that reflects on Themistocles's achievements:
What other man, while Sparta still had the superior strength and the Spartan Eurybiades held the supreme command of the fleet, could by his single-handed efforts have deprived Sparta of that glory? Of what other man have we learned from history that by a single act he caused himself to surpass all the commanders, his city all the other Greek states, and the Greeks the barbarians? In whose term as general have the resources been more inferior and the dangers they faced greater? Who, facing the united might of all Asia, has found himself at the side of his city when its inhabitants had been driven from their homes, and still won the victory? [140]
Modern scholars have endorsed this view, seeing Themistocles as a quintessential leader and strategist able to transform his city in pursuit of his naval doctrine. [147]
The South American plant genus Themistoclesia (named by Johann Friedrich Klotzsch, 1851) is named in honour of Themistocles. [148]
In popular culture
- Temistocle (1718), opera by Nicola Porpora
- Temistocle (1772), opera by Johann Christian Bach based on the life of Themistocles [149]
- Thémistocle (1785), opera by François-André Danican Philidor based on the life of Themistocles. [150]
- In the movie The 300 Spartans (1962), Themistocles is portrayed by the actor Ralph Richardson. [151]
- In the movie Lawrence of Arabia (1962), T. E. Lawrence (Peter O'Toole) quotes Francis Bacon's paraphrase of Themistocles: "I cannot fiddle, but I can make a great state from a little city." [152]
- The film 300: Rise of an Empire (2014) largely centers around Themistocles's (Sullivan Stapleton) command of the Greek allied fleet against the second Persian invasion of Greece. [153]
References
- 1 2 3 Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2014). The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization. Oxford University Press. p. 1506. ISBN 978-0-19-101676-9.
- 1 2 Brice, Lee L. (2012). Greek Warfare: From the Battle of Marathon to the Conquests of Alexander the Great. ABC-CLIO. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-61069-070-6.
- ↑ Plutarch Aristides 5.3
- 1 2 3 "Legend says that Themistocles poisoned himself rather than follow the Great King's order to make war on Athens. But he probably died of natural causes." in Strauss, Barry (2005). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece – and Western Civilization. Simon & Schuster. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-7432-7453-1.
- 1 2 3 4 Plutarch, Themistocles, 7
- ↑ "Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War". perseus.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
- 1 2 3 Plutarch, Themistocles 1 (translated by Bernadotte Perrin)
- ↑ Plutarch 1.1–1.2 narrates two accounts which describe her as either from Thrace or from Caria. However, Cornelius Nepos (1.2) describes her as an Acarnanian.
- ↑ Cornelius Nepos, Themistocles
- ↑ Libanius, Declamations 9–10
- 1 2 3 Plutarch, Themistocles 1
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Plutarch Themistocles, 32
- ↑ Plato. Meno. 93c–93e.
- ↑ Holland, p. 122
- ↑ Holland, pp. 126–128
- ↑ Herodotus. Histories. pp. 5.72–73.
- 1 2 3 4 Holland, pp. 128–131
- ↑ Holland, pp. 132–134
- ↑ Herodotus. Histories. p. 5.78.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Holland, pp. 164–167
- 1 2 3 Plutarch, Themistocles, 5
- ↑ Ostwald, Martin (2011). Language and History in Ancient Greek Culture. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-8122-0609-8.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Plutarch, Themistocles, 19
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Holland, pp. 214–217
- 1 2 3 4 Holland, pp. 217–219
- 1 2 Plutarch, Themistocles, 3
- ↑ Plutarch, Aristides, 2
- ↑ Holland, pp. 208–211
- 1 2 3 4 Plutarch, Themistocles 4
- 1 2 3 4 5 Holland, pp. 219–222
- 1 2 3 Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle. 148: 19. JSTOR 42668124.
- ↑ Tanner, Jeremy (2006). The Invention of Art History in Ancient Greece: Religion, Society and Artistic Rationalisation. Cambridge University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-521-84614-1.
- ↑ Herodotus VII, 145
- ↑ Herodotus VII, 161
- 1 2 3 Holland, p. 226
- ↑ Holland, p. 258
- 1 2 Herodotus VIII, 4
- 1 2 Holland, pp. 248–249
- ↑ Herodotus VII,173
- 1 2 3 Holland, pp. 255–257
- 1 2 3 Holland, pp. 251–255
- ↑ Plutarch, Themistocles, 11
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 40
- ↑ Holland, pp. 257–258
- ↑ Holland, p. 276
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 11–19
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 21
- 1 2 Herodotus VIII, 22
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 50
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 71
- 1 2 3 Holland, pp. 302–303
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 62
- 1 2 3 4 Holland, pp. 310–315
- ↑ Holland, pp. 307–309
- 1 2 Herodotus. Histories. p. 8.75.
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 76
- ↑ Lazenby, p. 255
- ↑ Holland, p. 321
- ↑ On the identification with Artemisia: "...Above the ships of the victorious Greeks, against which Artemisia, the Xerxes' ally, sends fleeing arrows...". Original German description of the painting: "Die neue Erfindung, welche Kaulbach für den neuen hohen Beschützer zu zeichnen gedachte, war wahrscheinlich „die Schlacht von Salamis". Ueber den Schiffen der siegreichen Griechen, gegen welche Artemisia, des Xerxes Bundesgenossin, fliehend Pfeile sendet, sieht man in Wolken die beiden Ajaxe" in Altpreussische Monatsschrift Nene Folge p. 300
- 1 2 Herodotus VIII, 79
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 80
- ↑ Holland, p. 316
- ↑ Herodotus VIII 83
- ↑ Lazenby, p. 190
- ↑ Lazenby, p. 197
- ↑ Hanson, pp. 12–60
- ↑ Strauss, pp. 1–294
- ↑ Holland, p. 399
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 97
- ↑ Holland, pp. 327–329
- 1 2 3 4 5 Holland, pp. 332–335
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 123
- 1 2 3 4 Plutarch, Themistocles, 17
- ↑ Herodotus VIII, 124
- ↑ Plutarch. "The Life of Aristides". The Parallel Lives. Loeb Classical Library. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
- ↑ "Plutarch • Life of Themistocles".
- 1 2 3 4 Plutarch, Themistocles, 22
- ↑ Diodorus XI, 27
- ↑ Lazenby, p. 209
- ↑ Herodotus IX, 6–9
- 1 2 Holland, pp. 358–359
- 1 2 Diodorus XI, 39
- 1 2 Diodorus XI, 54
- ↑ Shepherd, William (2012). Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen. Bloomsbury. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-84908-555-7.
- 1 2 3 4 Diodorus XI, 40
- 1 2 Diodorus XI, 41
- ↑ Holland, p. 360
- 1 2 Diodorus XI, 43
- ↑ Plutarch, Themistocles, 20
- ↑ David Campbell, Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol Classical Press (1982), p. 406
- 1 2 3 4 5 Diodorus XI, 55
- 1 2 3 Plutarch, Themistocles, 23
- 1 2 3 Plutarch, Themistocles, 24
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Diodorus XI, 56
- 1 2 3 4 5 Plutarch, Themistocles, 25
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Thucydides I, 137
- 1 2 3 4 Plutarch, Themistocles 26
- ↑ Plutarch, Themistocles 27
- ↑ "CNG".
- 1 2 3 Plutarch, Themistocles, 29
- ↑ Plutarch, Themistocles 28
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Thucydides I, 138
- 1 2 3 Plutarch Themistocles, 31
- ↑ Diodorus XI, 57
- ↑ Plutarch's Lives. Applegate & Co. 1866.
- 1 2 Miller, Margaret C. (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-521-60758-2.
- ↑ Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean. Brill. p. 170. ISBN 9789004284739.
- ↑ Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8061-3212-9.
- 1 2 Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle. 148: 13–20. JSTOR 42668124.
- ↑ Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle. 148: 20. JSTOR 42668124.
- ↑ Stieber, Mary (2010). The Poetics of Appearance in the Attic Korai. University of Texas Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-292-77349-3.
- ↑ "A rare silver fraction recently identified as a coin of Themistocles from Magnesia even has a bearded portrait of the great man, making it by far the earliest datable portrait coin. Other early portraits can be seen on the coins of Lycian dynasts." Carradice, Ian; Price, Martin (1988). Coinage in the Greek World. Seaby. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-900652-82-0.
- ↑ Howgego, Christopher (2002). Ancient History from Coins. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-134-87784-3.
- ↑ Rhodes, P. J. (2011). A History of the Classical Greek World: 478–323 BC. John Wiley & Sons. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4443-5858-2.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Cahn, Herbert A.; Gerin, Dominique (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle. 148: 19. JSTOR 42668124.
- 1 2 3 "Classical Numismatic Group".
- ↑ "The earliest attempts at portraiture appear to have taken place in Lycia. The heads of various dynasts appear on coins of the fifth century" Carradice, Ian (1978). Ancient Greek Portrait Coins. British Museum Publications. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7141-0849-0.
- 1 2 West, Shearer; Birmingham, Shearer (2004). Portraiture. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-19-284258-9.
- 1 2 Diodorus XI, 58
- ↑ André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-520-24731-4.
- 1 2 3 4 Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD. pp. 199–201. ISBN 978-1-910589-59-5.
- ↑ Nepos (Them. 10.3)
- ↑ "CNG".
- ↑ Clough, Arthur Hugh (1909). Plutarch's Lives of Themistocles, Pericles, Aristides, Alcibiades, and Coriolanus, Demosthenes, and Cicero, Caesar and Antony: In the Translation Called Dryden's. P. F. Collier & Son. pp. 33–34.
- 1 2 Hyland, John O. (2018). Persian Interventions: The Achaemenid Empire, Athens, and Sparta, 450–386 BCE. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-4214-2370-8.
- ↑ K. G., Fritz Rudolf Künker. Künker Auktion 158 – Münzen aus der Welt der Antike (in German). Numismatischer Verlag Künker. p. 49.
- 1 2 "The history and coinage of Themistokles as lord of Ionian Magnesia ad Maeandrum and of his son and successor, Archepolis, is illustrated by among other things, coins of Magnesia." in Numismatic Literature. American Numismatic Society. 2005. p. 5.
- ↑ "Eine griechishe Dynastie im Perserreich" in Nollé, Johannes (1998). Themistokles und Archepolis: Eine griechische Dynastie im Perserreich und ihre Münzprägung, JNG 48/49, 1998/1999, 29–70. (zusammen mit A. Wenninger) (in German).
- ↑ Cox, Cheryl Anne (2014). Household Interests: Property, Marriage Strategies, and Family Dynamics in Ancient Athens. Princeton University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-1-4008-6469-0.
- ↑ Foster, Edith; Lateiner, Donald (2012). Thucydides and Herodotus. Oxford University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-19-959326-2.
- 1 2 Harvey, David; Wilkins, John (2002). The Rivals of Aristophanes: Studies in Athenian Old Comedy. ISD. p. 200. ISBN 978-1-910589-59-5.
- ↑ Paus. 1.1.2, 26.4
- ↑ Habicht, Christian (1998). Pausanias Guide to Ancient Greece. University of California Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-520-06170-5.
- ↑ Smith, William (1867). Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. Vol. 3. Boston: Little & Brown. pp. 1154–1156.
- ↑ Plutarch, Themistocles 18
- ↑ Herodotus, VIII, 125.
- ↑ Plato, Republic, I, 330a.
- ↑ Holland, p. 364
- ↑ Lazenby, p. 169
- 1 2 Diodorus XI, 58
- ↑ Booth 1815, p. 57.
- ↑ Holland, pp. xvi–xvii
- 1 2 Holland, pp. 362–365
- ↑ Butler, p. 195
- 1 2 Holland, p. 371
- ↑ Platias, Athanasios; Trigkas, Vasilis (2022). "Themistocles must be destroyed: Sparta Confronts a Rising Athens". The Historical Review of Sparta. 1 (1): 129–156.
- ↑ Platias, Αthanasios; Trigkas, Vasillis (2022). "Themistocles: Leadership and Grand Strategy". Democracy and Salamis. Cham: Springer. pp. 99–129. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98431-1_5. ISBN 978-3-030-98430-4.
- ↑ "Themistoclesia Klotzsch". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ↑ "Temistocle. Libretto. German". Library of Congress . 1772.
- ↑ Thémistocle, tragédie lyrique en trois actes, paroles de Mr Morel, représentée, pour la première fois devant leurs Majestés à Fontainebleau le 13 8bre 1785 et à Paris sur le théâtre de l'Académie Royale de Musique le mardi 23 Mai 1786... Mise en musique par A. D. Philidor (in French). chez Le Duc. 1787.
- ↑ "The 300 Spartans".
- ↑ Bacon, Francis. "Of the True Greatness of Kingdoms and Estates", Bacon's Essays . C. S. Francis & Company, 1857. 283.
- ↑ "Film Review: '300: Rise of an Empire'". 3 March 2014.
Bibliography
Ancient sources
- Cornelius Nepos, Themistocles via Tertullian.org
- Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica via Perseus Project
- Herodotus, The Histories via Perseus Project
- Libanius, Declamationes.
- Plutarch, Themistocles via Perseus Project
- Plutarch, Moralia.
- Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War via Perseus Project
Modern sources
- Hanson, Victor Davis (2001). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power. DoubleDay. ISBN 978-0-385-50052-4.
- Frost, Frank J. (1980). Plutarch's Themistocles, An Historical Commentary. Princeton University Press.
- Behmel, Albrecht (2000). Themistokles: Sieger von Salamis. Herr von Magnesia (in German). Ibidem. ISBN 978-3-932602-72-6.
- Holland, Tom (2005). Persian Fire. Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1.
- Simon Hornblower, Anthony Spawforth (1996). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866172-6..
- Green, Peter (2007). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. Orion. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9.
- Lazenby, J. F. (1993). The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0-85668-591-0.
- Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 758–759.
- Strauss, Barry (2004). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece—and Western Civilization. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-4450-3.
- Smith, Jeffrey A. (2021). Themistocles: The Powerbroker of Athens. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-5267-9045-3.
- Booth, John (1815), The Battle of Waterloo: Containing the Accounts Published by Authority, British and Foreign, and Other Relevant Documents, with Circumstantial Details, Previous and After the Battle, from a Variety of Authentic and Original Sources (2nd ed.), London: J. Booth & T. Ergeton
External links
Quotations related to Themistocles at Wikiquote
- Gera, Deborah Levine (2007). "Themistocles' Persian Tapestry". The Classical Quarterly. 57 (2): 445–457. doi:10.1017/S0009838807000493. S2CID 170957241.
- Livius.org, Themistocles Archived 17 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine by Jona Lendering
- Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Θεμιστοκλῆς
Themistocles | |
|---|---|
| Θεμιστοκλῆς | |
 Herm of Themistocles (1875 illustration) | |
| Eponymous archon of Athens | |
| In office 493 –492 BC |
Works of Plutarch | |
|---|---|
| Works | |
| Lives |
|
| Translators and editors | |
| |
Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire | ||
|---|---|---|
Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom | ||
| Kings of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire |  | |
| Satraps of Lydia | ||
| Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia | ||
| Satraps of Cappadocia | ||
| Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities | ||
| Dynasts of Lycia | ||
| Dynasts of Caria | ||
| Kings of Macedonia | ||
| Kings of Tyre | ||
| Kings of Sidon |
| |
| Satraps of Armenia | ||
| Satraps of Egypt | ||
| Satraps of Bactria | ||
| Satraps of Media | ||
| Satraps of Cilicia | ||
| Other known satraps | ||
In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC | ||
