Cretan archers

Last updated

Cretan archers were a well known class of warrior whose specialist skills were extensively utilized in both ancient and medieval warfare. [1] They were especially valued in armies, such as those of the Greek city-states, (such as Athens, Sparta, Eretria, and Macedonia) and those of ancient Rome, which could not draw upon substantial numbers of skilled archers from their native populations.

Contents

Normally Greek archers fought unarmored, yet some sources show archers wearing Linothorax or leather armor (like on the Nereid Monument), helmets, or even a cuirass. Ancient Cretan archers were said to also wear small shields, which implies, that they were capable of defending themselves in close combat. This also implies that they were probably also equipped with swords. Due to the mass of Cretan archers in use during the Hellenistic era it is possible, that at least in some cases, "Cretan" means "in the Cretan fashion", like "Tarantine" in Tarantine cavalry often denotes a type of tactics and equipment, rather than actual cavalry from Tarantas. At least some other Hellenes tried to imitate Cretan archers, as some sources talk about archers "armed in the Cretan style". [2]

History

The use of bows and arrows by Cretan hunters is indicated as early as 2200 BC, in a Minoan seal. A mosaic discovered in Knossos and dated about 1700 BC portrays warriors armed with bows of both simple and double-convex designs. [3]

During the classical Greek era Cretan archers carried composite bows, consisting of a wooden core with laminated layers of sinew and horn. These weapons, while difficult to string and use, gave the professional Cretan archers greater range than the simple wooden bows of the citizen levies of mainland Greece. [4]

Though Cretan archers could be theoretically outranged by Rhodian slingers, [5] they were widely recognized as being amongst the best light missile troops in the ancient world, and as such found employment as mercenaries in many armies, including Alexander the Great's and those of many of the Diadochi. During the Retreat of the Ten thousand following the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC Xenophon's hoplites were able to hold off pursuing Persian troops, with the aid of the Cretan archers who formed part of the Greek mercenary army. On this occasion the Cretans, cut off from supplies, were able to gather and reuse the spent Persian arrows while seizing bowstrings from local peasantry. [6] Xenophon records that Cretan archers were outranged by their Persian counterparts and suffered losses because they wore no armour. Eurybotas was the toxarch (τοξάρχης), meaning captain of the archers, in the army of Alexander the Great.

Following the conquest of Macedonia and of the independent Greek city-states, Cretan archers served as auxiliaries in the Roman army as reformed by Gaius Marius under the Republic, [7] and that of the Empire. Mediterranean light archers in Roman service from the 3rd through the 5th centuries A.D. might wear leather caps or be bare-headed. The chain-mail of earlier periods was replaced by leather jerkins or long-sleeved tunics, in favor of increased mobility and economy. Secondary weapons for use at close quarters included light axes and small round shields slung from a belt and suitable for parrying. [8] An auxiliary unit of mounted Cretan archers: Cohors I Cretum Sagittariorum Equitata; fought in the Dacian Wars of 102–105 AD and continued to serve in that province until at least 161 AD. [9]

Although the Roman archers of the late-Republican era had been mainly recruited from Crete, [10] those of the Imperial Roman army were increasingly drawn from more thickly populated provinces such as Syria, Anatolia and Thrace. By the middle of the 2nd century AD 32, auxiliary units designated as sagittarii (archers) had Syrian titles and only one Cretan. [11]

Crete remained part of the Byzantine Empire until seized by Venice in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. During much of this period the island was a theme (military province), providing both archers and sailors for the Byzantine forces. [12]

In 1452, Venice granted specific permission for Byzantium to resume recruitment of Cretans. [13] One of the last occasions on which Cretan archers are known to have played a significant role was as part of the garrison defending Constantinople against the Turkish army of Mehmet II in May 1453. [14]

Cretan archers are included in the video games Rome: Total War , Total War: Rome II & Total War: Arena , where they are available to be hired as mercenaries.

Footnotes

  1. Bigwood, "Ctesias as Historian of the Persian Wars," 35.
  2. Head, Duncan (2016). Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars 359 BC to 146 BC. p. 208 f. ISBN   9781326256562.
  3. D'Amato, Raffaele. Early Aegean Warrior 5000-1450 BC. p. 37. ISBN   978-1-78096-858-2.
  4. Fields, Nic. Syracuse 415-413 BC. p. 35. ISBN   978-1-84603-258-5.
  5. Echols, "The Ancient Slinger," 228.
  6. Wary, John. Warfare in the Classical World. pp. 56–57. ISBN   0-86101-034-5.
  7. Fields, Nic (2011). Boudicca's Rebellion AD 60-61 . p.  38. ISBN   978-1-84908-313-3.
  8. Phil Barker, page 41 "The Armies and Enemies of Imperial Rome 150 BC to 600 AD"
  9. Wary, Raffaele D'Amato. Roman Army Units in the Eastern Provinces (1). p. 13. ISBN   978-1-4728-2176-8.
  10. Fields, Nic. Carrhae 53 BC. p. 16. ISBN   978-1-4728-4904-5.
  11. Esposito, Gabriele. The Late Roman Army. p. 39. ISBN   978-0-9963657-9-6.
  12. Wary, John. Byzantine Armies 886-1118. pp. 18 & 23. ISBN   0-85045-306-2.
  13. Heath, Ian. Byzantine Armies 1118-1461 AD. p. 23. ISBN   1-85532-347-8.
  14. D'Amato, Raffaele. The Eastern Romans 330-1461 AD. p. 42. ISBN   962-361-089-0.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abydos (Hellespont)</span> Ancient city in Turkey

Abydos was an ancient city and bishopric in Mysia. It was located at the Nara Burnu promontory on the Asian coast of the Hellespont, opposite the ancient city of Sestos, and near the city of Çanakkale in Turkey. Abydos was founded in c. 670 BC at the most narrow point in the straits, and thus was one of the main crossing points between Europe and Asia, until its replacement by the crossing between Lampsacus and Kallipolis in the 13th century, and the abandonment of Abydos in the early 14th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sling (weapon)</span> Ranged weapon, typically to propel small stones

A sling is a projectile weapon typically used to hand-throw a blunt projectile such as a stone, clay, or lead "sling-bullet". It is also known as the shepherd's sling or slingshot. Someone who specializes in using slings is called a slinger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artaxerxes II</span> King of the Achaemenid Empire from 405/4 to 359/8 BC

Arses, known by his regnal name Artaxerxes II, was King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 405/4 BC to 358 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius II and his mother was Parysatis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Issus</span> 333 BC battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III

The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia, on 5 November 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire, led by Darius III. It was the second great battle of Alexander's conquest of Asia, and the first encounter between Darius III and Alexander the Great. The battle resulted in the Macedonian troops defeating the Persian forces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cataphract</span> Type of heavy cavalry originating in Persia and used throughout Eurasia and Northern Africa

A cataphract was a form of armored heavy cavalry that originated in Persia and was fielded in ancient warfare throughout Eurasia and Northern Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Magnesia</span> Battle where Rome and Pergamon defeat the Seleucids

The Battle of Magnesia took place in either December 190 or January 189 BC. It was fought as part of the Roman–Seleucid War, pitting forces of the Roman Republic led by the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and the allied Kingdom of Pergamon under Eumenes II against a Seleucid army of Antiochus III the Great. The two armies initially camped northeast of Magnesia ad Sipylum in Asia Minor, attempting to provoke each other into a battle on favorable terrain for several days.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Achaean League</span> Hellenistic-era confederation of Greek city states

The Achaean League was a Hellenistic-era confederation of Greek city states on the northern and central Peloponnese. The league was named after the region of Achaea in the northwestern Peloponnese, which formed its original core. The first league was formed in the fifth century BC. The second Achaean League was established in 280 BC. As a rival of Antigonid Macedon and an ally of Rome, the league played a major role in the expansion of the Roman Republic into Greece. This process eventually led to the League's conquest and dissolution by the Romans in 146 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman army</span> Armies of Ancient Rome

The Roman army was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom to the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and its medieval continuation, the Eastern Roman Empire. It is thus a term that may span approximately 2,205 years, during which the Roman armed forces underwent numerous permutations in size, composition, organisation, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting traditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peltast</span> Type of ancient Greek light infantry

A peltast was a type of light infantry originating in Thrace and Paeonia and named after the kind of shield he carried. Thucydides mentions the Thracian peltasts, while Xenophon in the Anabasis distinguishes the Thracian and Greek peltast troops.

Ancient warfare is war that was conducted from the beginning of recorded history to the end of the ancient period. The difference between prehistoric and ancient warfare is more organization oriented than technology oriented. The development of first city-states, and then empires, allowed warfare to change dramatically. Beginning in Mesopotamia, states produced sufficient agricultural surplus. This allowed full-time ruling elites and military commanders to emerge. While the bulk of military forces were still farmers, the society could portion off each year. Thus, organized armies developed for the first time. These new armies were able to help states grow in size and become increasingly centralized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine army</span> Land branch of the armed forces of the Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces, serving alongside the Byzantine navy. A direct continuation of the Eastern Roman army, shaping and developing itself on the legacy of the late Hellenistic armies, it maintained a similar level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization. It was among the most effective armies of western Eurasia for much of the Middle Ages. Over time the cavalry arm became more prominent in the Byzantine army as the legion system disappeared in the early 7th century. Later reforms reflected some Germanic and Asian influences—rival forces frequently became sources of mercenary units, such as the Huns, Cumans, Alans and Turks, meeting the Empire's demand for light cavalry mercenaries. Since much of the Byzantine military focused on the strategy and skill of generals utilizing militia troops, heavy infantry were recruited from Frankish and later Varangian mercenaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Macedonian army</span> Army of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia

The army of the Kingdom of Macedon was among the greatest military forces of the ancient world. It was created and made formidable by King Philip II of Macedon; previously the army of Macedon had been of little account in the politics of the Greek world, and Macedonia had been regarded as a second-rate power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Greek warfare</span> Overview of wars in Ancient Greece

Warfare occurred throughout the history of Ancient Greece, from the Greek Dark Ages onward. The Greek 'Dark Ages' drew to an end as a significant increase in population allowed urbanized culture to be restored, which led to the rise of the city-states (Poleis). These developments ushered in the period of Archaic Greece. They also restored the capability of organized warfare between these Poleis. The fractious nature of Ancient Greek society seems to have made continuous conflict on this larger scale inevitable.

The Hellenistic armies is a term which refers to the various armies of the successor kingdoms to the Hellenistic period, emerging soon after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, when the Macedonian empire was split between his successors, known as the Diadochi.

Meno, son of Alexidemus, was an ancient Thessalian political figure. Probably from Pharsalus, he is famous both for the eponymous dialogue written by Plato and his role as one of the generals leading different contingents of Greek mercenaries in Xenophon's Anabasis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of weapons</span> Aspect of history

Major innovations in the history of weapons have included the adoption of different materials – from stone and wood to different metals, and modern synthetic materials such as plastics – and the developments of different weapon styles either to fit the terrain or to support or counteract different battlefield tactics and defensive equipment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thracian warfare</span>

The history of Thracian warfare spans from the 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Thrace. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Thracian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between Thracians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Thracian tribes.

The Seleucid army was the army of the Seleucid Empire, one of the numerous Hellenistic states that emerged after the death of Alexander the Great.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</span> Political history topic

The first government of ancient Macedonia was established by the Argead dynasty of Macedonian kings during the Archaic period. The early history of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia is obscure because of shortcomings in the historical record; little is known of governmental institutions before the reign of Philip II during the late Classical period. These bureaucratic organizations evolved in complexity under his successor Alexander the Great and the subsequent Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties of Hellenistic Greece. Following the Roman victory in the Third Macedonian War over Perseus of Macedon in 168 BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by four client state republics. After a brief revival of the monarchy in 150–148 BC, the Fourth Macedonian War resulted in another Roman victory and the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyttian War</span> War in Crete, c. 220– c. 216 BC

The Lyttian War was an internal conflict fought from around 220 BC to about 216 BC between two coalitions of Cretan city-states, led by Cnossus and Polyrrhenia respectively. The events of the war are recorded by the historian Polybius. It is considered "the greatest war in Cretan history" during Antiquity.

References

Further reading