Homeric Greek

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Homeric Greek
Greek alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-3
grc-hom

Homeric Greek is the form of the Greek language that was used in the Iliad , Odyssey , and Homeric Hymns. It is a literary dialect of Ancient Greek consisting mainly of Ionic, with some Aeolic forms, a few from Arcadocypriot, and a written form influenced by Attic. [1] It was later named Epic Greek because it was used as the language of epic poetry, typically in dactylic hexameter, by poets such as Hesiod and Theognis of Megara. Compositions in Epic Greek may date from as late as the 5th century CE, and it only fell out of use by the end of classical antiquity.

Contents

Main features

In the following description, only forms that differ from those of later Greek are discussed. Omitted forms can usually be predicted from patterns seen in Ionic Greek.

Phonology

Homeric Greek is like Ionic Greek, and unlike Classical Attic, in shifting almost all cases of long to η.

Examples of Homeric Greek phonology.
HomericAtticEnglish
ΤροίηΤροίᾱTroy (nominative singular)
ὥρηὥρᾱan hour (nominative singular)
πύλῃσιπύλαις/πύλαισιgates (dative plural)

Exceptions include nouns like θεᾱ́ ("a goddess"), and the genitive plural of first-declension nouns and the genitive singular of masculine first-declension nouns. For example θεᾱ́ων ("of goddesses"), and Ἀτρεΐδᾱο ("of the son of Atreus").

Nouns

First declension [2]
The nominative singular of most feminine nouns ends in , rather than long -ᾱ, even after ρ, ε, and ι (an Ionic feature): χώρη for χώρᾱ. However, θεᾱ́ and some names end in long -ᾱ.
Some masculine nouns have a nominative singular in short -ᾰ rather than -ης (ναύτης, Ἀτρεΐδης): ἱππότᾰ for Attic ἱππότης.
The genitive singular of masculine nouns ends in -ᾱο or -εω (rarely - only after vowels - ), rather than -ου: Ἀτρεΐδᾱο for Attic Ἀτρείδου. [note 1]
The genitive plural usually ends in -ᾱων or -εων: νυμφᾱ́ων for Attic νυμφῶν. [note 2]
The dative plural almost always ends in -ῃσι(ν) or -ῃς: πύλῃσιν for Attic πύλαις.
Second declension
Genitive singular: ends in -οιο, as well as -ου. For example, πεδίοιο, as well as πεδίου.
Genitive and dative dual: ends in -οιϊν. Thus, ἵπποιϊν appears, rather than ἵπποιν.
Dative plural: ends in -οισι(ν) and -οις. For example, φύλλοισι, as well as φύλλοις.
Third declension
Accusative singular: ends in -ιν, as well as -ιδα. For example, γλαυκῶπιν, as well as γλαυκώπιδα.
Dative plural: ends in -εσσι and -σι. For example, πόδεσσι or ἔπεσσι.
Homeric Greek lacks the quantitative metathesis present in later Greek (except in certain α-stem genitive plurals and certain masculine α-stem genitive singulars):
  • Homeric βασιλῆος instead of βασιλέως, πόληος instead of πόλεως
  • βασιλῆα instead of βασιλέᾱ
  • βασιλῆας instead of βασιλέᾱς
  • βασιλήων instead of βασιλέων
Homeric Greek sometimes uses different endings:
  • πόληος alternates with πόλιος

A note on nouns:

Pronouns

First-person pronoun (singular "I", dual "we both", plural "we")
SingularDualPlural
Nominativeἐγώ, ἐγώννῶι, νώἡμεῖς, ἄμμες
Genitiveἐμεῖο, ἐμέο, ἐμεῦ, μεῦ, ἐμέθεννῶινἡμείων, ἡμέων, ἀμμέων
Dativeἐμοί, μοιἡμῖν, ἄμμι(ν)
Accusativeἐμέ, μενῶι, νώἡμέας, ἧμας, ἄμμε
Second-person pronoun (singular "you", dual "you both", plural "you")
SingularDualPlural
Nominativeσύ, τύνησφῶϊ, σφώὑμεῖς, ὔμμες
Genitiveσεῖο, σέο, σεῦ, σευ, σέθεν, τεοῖοσφῶϊν, σφῷνὑμέων, ὑμείων, ὔμμέων
Dativeσοί, τοι, τεΐνὑμῖν, ὔμμι(ν)
Accusativeσέσφῶϊ, σφώὑμέας, ὔμμε
Third-person pronoun (singular "he, she, it", dual "they both", plural "they")
SingularDualPlural
Nominativeσφωέσφεῖς
Genitiveοὗ, εἷο, ἕο, εὗ, ἕθενσφωΐνσφείων, σφέων
Dativeἑοῖ, οἱσφι(ν), σφίσι(ν)
Accusativeἕ, ἑέ, μινσφωέσφε, σφέας, σφας
Interrogative pronoun, singular and plural ("who, what, which")
Nominativeτίς
Accusativeτίνα
Genitiveτέο, τεῦ
Dativeτέῳ
Genitiveτέων[ clarification needed ]

Verbs

Person endings
appears rather than -σαν. For example, ἔσταν for ἔστησαν in the third-person plural active.
The third plural middle/passive often ends in -αται or -ατο; for example, ἥατο is equivalent to ἧντο.
Tenses
Future: Generally remains uncontracted. For example, ἐρέω appears instead of ἐρῶ or τελέω instead of τελῶ.
Present or imperfect: These tenses sometimes take iterative form with the suffix -σκ- before the ending. For example, φύγεσκον: 'they kept on running away'
Aorist or imperfect: Both tenses can occasionally drop their augments. For example, βάλον may appear instead of ἔβαλον, and ἔμβαλε may appear instead of ἐνέβαλε.
Homeric Greek does not have a historical present tense, but rather uses injunctives. Injunctives are replaced by the historical present in the post-Homeric writings of Thucydides and Herodotus. [3]
Subjunctive
The subjunctive appears with a short vowel. Thus, the form ἴομεν, rather than ἴωμεν.
The second singular middle subjunctive ending appears as both -ηαι and -εαι.
The third singular active subjunctive ends in -σι(ν). Thus, we see the form φορεῇσι, instead of φορῇ.
Occasionally, the subjunctive is used in place of the future and in general remarks.
Infinitive
The infinitive appears with the endings -μεν, -μεναι, and -ναι, in place of -ειν and -ναι. For example, δόμεναι for δοῦναι; ἴμεν instead of ἰέναι; ἔμεν, ἔμμεν, or ἔμμεναι for εἶναι; and ἀκουέμεν(αι) in place of ἀκούειν.
Contracted verbs
In contracted verbs, where Attic employs an -ω-, Homeric Greek will use -οω- or -ωω- in place of -αο-. For example, Attic ὁρῶντες becomes ὁρόωντες.
Similarly, in places where -αε- contracts to -α- or -αει- contracts to -ᾳ-, Homeric Greek will show either αα or αᾳ.

Adverbs

Adverbial suffixes
-δε conveys a sense of 'to where'; πόλεμόνδε 'to the war'
-δον conveys a sense of 'how'; κλαγγηδόν 'with cries'
-θεν conveys a sense of 'from where'; ὑψόθεν 'from above'
-θι conveys a sense of 'where'; ὑψόθι 'on high'

Particles

ἄρα, ἄρ, ῥα 'so' or 'next' (transition)
τε 'and' (a general remark or a connective)
Emphatics
δή 'indeed'
'surely'
περ 'just' or 'even'
τοι 'I tell you ...' (assertion)

Other features

In most circumstances, Homeric Greek did not have available a true definite article. , , τό and their inflected forms do occur, but they are in origin and usually used as demonstrative pronouns. [4]

Vocabulary

Homer (in the Iliad and the Odyssey) uses about 9,000 words, of which 1,382 are proper names. Of the 7,618 remaining words 2,307 are hapax legomena. [5] [6] According to classical scholar Clyde Pharr, "the Iliad has 1097 hapax legomena, while the Odyssey has 868". [7] Others have defined the term differently, however, and count as few as 303 in the Iliad and 191 in the Odyssey. [8]

Sample

The Iliad , lines 1–7

Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος
οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί’ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε’ ἔθηκε,
πολλὰς δ’ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
οἰωνοῖσί τε δαῖτα· Διὸς δ’ ἐτελείετο βουλή·
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.

Theodore Alois Buckley (1860):

Sing, O goddess, the destructive wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus, which brought countless woes upon the Greeks, and hurled many valiant souls of heroes down to Hades, and made themselves a prey to dogs and to all birds but the will of Jove was being accomplished, from the time when Atrides, king of men, and noble Achilles, first contending, were disunited.

Authors

Poets of the Epic Cycle

See also

Notes

  1. Some suggest that -ᾱο may have originally been the more expected -ηο, with -ηο later being transcribed -ᾱο under the influence of other (literary) dialects, whilst others suggest that -ᾱο may have been an Aeolic form. (See λᾱός and Ποσειδᾱ́ων for expected ληός and Ποσειδήων.)
  2. -ᾱων for expected -ηων would occur for the reasons given in Note 1.

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References

  1. Stanford 1959 , pp. lii, liii, the Homeric dialect
  2. Stanford 1959 , pp. lvii–lviii, first declension
  3. Carroll D. Osburn (1983). "The Historical Present in Mark as a Text-Critical Criterion". Biblica. 64 (4): 486–500. JSTOR   42707093.
  4. Goodwin, William W. (1879). A Greek Grammar (pp 204). St Martin's Press.
  5. The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume 5, Books 17-20, Geoffrey Stephen Kirk, Mark W. Edwards, Cambridge University Press, 1991, ISBN   978-0-521-31208-0 p53, footnote 72
  6. Google preview
  7. Pharr, Clyde (1920). Homeric Greek, a book for beginners. D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers. p. xxii.
  8. Reece, Steve. "Hapax Legomena," in Margalit Finkelberg (ed.), Homeric Encyclopedia (Oxford: Blackwell, 2011) 330-331. Hapax Legomena in Homer

Bibliography

Further reading