Training and development

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Training and development involves improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them. [1] Training may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with human resources management, talent management, human resources development, instructional design, human factors, and knowledge management. [1]

Contents

Skills training has taken on varying organizational forms across industrialized economies. [2] Germany has an elaborate vocational training system, whereas the United States and the United Kingdom are considered to generally have weak vocational training systems. [2]

History

Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the world. [3] Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the Antebellum South [4] and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by Booker T. Washington. [5] Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the Journal of Applied Psychology, which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists. [6]

By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since it was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research, [6] and new training methods were developed, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing. [6] [7] The scope of training and development also expanded to include cross-cultural training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new organization development literature to frame training programs. [7]

The 1980s focused on how employees received and implemented training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs. [8] The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 90s, with employees more frequently being influenced by the concept of lifelong learning. [9] It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture was first conducted. [9]

The 21st century brought more research in topics such as team-training, such as cross-training, which emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities. [10]

Training practice and methods

Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and development. [11] [12] [13] Differing levels and types of development may be used depending on the roles of employees in an organisation. [14]

The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers, and line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The clients of training and development are business planners, while the participants are those who undergo the processes. The facilitators are human resource management staff and the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the others'. [15]

Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities. [16] These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning, [17] error management training, [18] guided exploration, [19] and mastery training. [16] Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new employee orientation, professional skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in high-reliability organizations, which rely on high safety standards to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants and operating rooms). [20]

The instructional systems design approach (often referred to as the ADDIE model) is often used for designing learning programs and used for instructional design, or the process of designing, developing, and delivering learning content. There are 5 phases in the ADDIE model: [21]

  1. Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources
  2. Program design: mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods
  3. Program development: delivery method, production of learning outcomes, quality evaluation of learning outcome, development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessment and evaluation tools
  4. Training delivery and implementation: participation in side-programs, training delivery, learning participation, and evaluation of business
  5. Evaluation of training: formal evaluation, including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement

Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods.[ citation needed ] Other training methods may include:

There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some[ who? ] believe training wastes time and money because, in certain cases, real life experience may be better than education, and organizations want to spend less, not more. [26]

Seminar training method Training Seminar.jpg
Seminar training method


Principles

Aik and Tway (2006) estimated that only 20–30% of training given to employees are used within the next month. [27] To mitigate the issue, they recommended some general principles to follow to increase the employees' desire to take part in the program. These include:

Motivation

Motivation is an internal process that influences an employee's behavior and willingness to achieve organizational goals. [28] Creating a motivational environment within an organization can help employees achieve their highest level of productivity, [27] and can create an engaged workforce that enhances individual and organizational performance. [29] The model for motivation is represented by motivators separated into two different categories:

Training and Development Conference Training and Development Conference.jpg
Training and Development Conference

Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators associate with employee performance in the workplace. A company's techniques to motivate employees may change over time depending on the current dynamics of the workplace. [29]

Feedback

Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees’ perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level. [30]

Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement-based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the faster attendees are apt to learn. [31]

Benefits

The benefits of the training and development of employees include:

However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and goal-oriented. [35] Needs assessments, especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it should be trained, and how extensively. [36] Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The needs assessment can predict the degree of effectiveness of training and development programs and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities). [37] Training effectiveness is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few studies investigating the impacts on organizations. [1]

Barriers and access to training

Training and development are crucial to organizational performance, employee career advancement and engagement. [38]

Disparities in training can be caused by several factors, including societal norms and cultural biases that significantly impact the distribution of training opportunities. Stereotypes and implicit biases can undermine the confidence and performance of minority groups to seek out training, affecting their career development. [39]

The impact of excluding or limiting a person’s access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.

Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders’ demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse. [43]

To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:

Occupation

The Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, industrial-organizational psychologists, and organization development consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs. [49]

Training in enhancing public service motivation

Training and public service motivation

Research by Chen et al. (2019) explores the potential of training programs to enhance public service motivation among public employees. The findings suggest that training may enhance motivation, provided that the training is perceived as effective and satisfactory by the participants. [50]

Knowledge and attitude development

Training programs in the public sector often focus on imparting essential knowledge and skills required for effective job performance. Training can improve employees' basic knowledge of public service, including understanding the goals of public service, the importance of neutrality, and the relationship between public employees and the state. [50]

Challenges and opportunities

Despite the potential benefits of training, there are challenges in its implementation. Public managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training. [50] Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the true yield of training investments, particularly in terms of long-term outcomes. [51]

See also

Related Research Articles

Industrial and organizational psychology "focuses the lens of psychological science on a key aspect of human life, namely, their work lives. In general, the goals of I-O psychology are to better understand and optimize the effectiveness, health, and well-being of both individuals and organizations." It is an applied discipline within psychology and is an international profession. I-O psychology is also known as occupational psychology in the United Kingdom, organisational psychology in Australia and New Zealand, and work and organizational (WO) psychology throughout Europe and Brazil. Industrial, work, and organizational (IWO) psychology is the broader, more global term for the science and profession.

A performance appraisal, also referred to as a performance review, performance evaluation, (career) development discussion, or employee appraisal, sometimes shortened to "PA", is a periodic and systematic process whereby the job performance of an employee is documented and evaluated. This is done after employees are trained about work and settle into their jobs. Performance appraisals are a part of career development and consist of regular reviews of employee performance within organizations.

Work design is an area of research and practice within industrial and organizational psychology, and is concerned with the "content and organization of one's work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities" (p. 662). Research has demonstrated that work design has important implications for individual employees, teams, organisations, and society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Job satisfaction</span> Attitude of a person towards work

Job satisfaction, employee satisfaction or work satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentment with their job, whether they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision. Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative), affective, and behavioral components. Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job. or cognitions about the job.

Goal setting involves the development of an action plan designed in order to motivate and guide a person or group toward a goal. Goals are more deliberate than desires and momentary intentions. Therefore, setting goals means that a person has committed thought, emotion, and behavior towards attaining the goal. In doing so, the goal setter has established a desired future state which differs from their current state thus creating a mismatch which in turn spurs future actions. Goal setting can be guided by goal-setting criteria such as SMART criteria. Goal setting is a major component of personal-development and management literature. Studies by Edwin A. Locke and his colleagues, most notably, Gary Latham have shown that more specific and ambitious goals lead to more performance improvement than easy or general goals. Difficult goals should be set ideally at the 90th percentile of performance, assuming that motivation and not ability is limiting attainment of that level of performance. As long as the person accepts the goal, has the ability to attain it, and does not have conflicting goals, there is a positive linear relationship between goal difficulty and task performance.

Recognition of prior learning (RPL), prior learning assessment (PLA), or prior learning assessment and recognition (PLAR) describes a process used by regulatory bodies, adult learning centres, career development practitioners, military organizations, human resources professionals, employers, training institutions, colleges and universities around the world to evaluate skills and knowledge acquired outside the classroom for the purpose of recognizing competence against a given set of standards, competencies, or learning outcomes. RPL is practiced in many countries for a variety of purposes, for example an individual's standing in a profession, trades qualifications, academic achievement, recruitment, performance management, career and succession planning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Workforce productivity</span> Concept in economics

Workforce productivity is the amount of goods and services that a group of workers produce in a given amount of time. It is one of several types of productivity that economists measure. Workforce productivity, often referred to as labor productivity, is a measure for an organisation or company, a process, an industry, or a country.

On-the-job training is an important topic of human resource management. It helps develop the career of the individual and the prosperous growth of the organization. On-the-job training is a form of training provided at the workplace. During the training, employees are familiarized with the working environment they will become part of. Employees also get a hands-on experience using machinery, equipment, tools, materials, etc. Part of on-the-job training is to face the challenges that occur during the performance of the job. An experienced employee or a manager are executing the role of the mentor who through written, or verbal instructions and demonstrations are passing on his/her knowledge and company-specific skills to the new employee. Executing the training on at the job location, rather than the classroom, creates a stress-free environment for the employees. On-the-job training is the most popular method of training not only in the United States but in most of the developed countries, such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, etc. Its effectiveness is based on the use of existing workplace tools, machines, documents and equipment, and the knowledge of specialists who are working in this field. On-the-job training is easy to arrange and manage and it simplifies the process of adapting to the new workplace. On-the-job training is highly used for practical tasks. It is inexpensive, and it doesn't require special equipment that is normally used for a specific job. Upon satisfaction of completion of the training, the employer is expected to retain participants as regular employees.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Onboarding</span> Management jargon

Onboarding or organizational socialization is the American term for the mechanism through which new employees acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, and behaviors to become effective organizational members and insiders. In standard English, this is referred to as "induction". In the United States, up to 25% of workers are organizational newcomers engaged in onboarding process.

Workplace aggression is a specific type of aggression which occurs in the workplace. Workplace aggression is any type of hostile behavior that occurs in the workplace. It can range from verbal insults and threats to physical violence, and it can occur between coworkers, supervisors, and subordinates. Common examples of workplace aggression include gossiping, bullying, intimidation, sabotage, sexual harassment, and physical violence. These behaviors can have serious consequences, including reduced productivity, increased stress, and decreased morale.

Job performance assesses whether a person performs a job well. Job performance, studied academically as part of industrial and organizational psychology, also forms a part of human resources management. Performance is an important criterion for organizational outcomes and success. John P. Campbell describes job performance as an individual-level variable, or something a single person does. This differentiates it from more encompassing constructs such as organizational performance or national performance, which are higher-level variables.

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is employee's behavior that goes against the legitimate interests of an organization. This behavior can harm the organization, other people within it, and other people and organizations outside it, including employers, other employees, suppliers, clients, patients and citizens. It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction (the relationship between a person's psychological and physical capacities and the demands placed on those capacities by the person's social and physical environment.) can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors. For instance, an employee who is high on trait anger is more likely to respond to a stressful incident at work with CWB.

Personnel psychology is a subfield of industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology. Personnel psychology is the area of I-O psychology that primarily deals with the recruitment, selection and evaluation of personnel, and with other job aspects such as morale, job satisfaction, and relationships between managers and workers in the workplace. It is the field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees; this area of psychology deals with job analysis and defines and measures job performance, performance appraisal, employment testing, employment interviews, personnel selection and employee training, and human factors and ergonomics.

Positive psychology is defined as a method of building on what is good and what is already working instead of attempting to stimulate improvement by focusing on the weak links in an individual, a group, or in this case, a company. Implementing positive psychology in the workplace means creating an environment that is more enjoyable, productive, and values individual employees. This also means creating a work schedule that does not lead to emotional and physical distress.

Employee motivation is an intrinsic and internal drive to put forth the necessary effort and action towards work-related activities. It has been broadly defined as the "psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organisation, a person's level of effort and a person's level of persistence". Also, "Motivation can be thought of as the willingness to expend energy to achieve a goal or a reward. Motivation at work has been defined as 'the sum of the processes that influence the arousal, direction, and maintenance of behaviors relevant to work settings'." Motivated employees are essential to the success of an organization as motivated employees are generally more productive at the work place.

Abusive supervision is most commonly studied in the context of the workplace, although it can arise in other areas such as in the household and at school. "Abusive supervision has been investigated as an antecedent to negative subordinate workplace outcome." "Workplace violence has combination of situational and personal factors". The study that was conducted looked at the link between abusive supervision and different workplace events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ruth Kanfer</span>

Ruth Kanfer is a psychologist and professor at Georgia Institute of Technology in the area of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. She is best known for her research in the fields of motivation, goal setting, self-regulation, job search, adult learning, and future of work. Kanfer has received numerous awards for her research contributions including the American Psychological Association Distinguished Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution in Applied Research in 1989, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) William R. Owens Scholarly Achievement Award in 2006 and the SIOP Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award in 2007. Ruth Kanfer has authored influential papers on a variety of topics including the interaction of cognitive abilities and motivation on performance, the influence of personality and motivation on job search and employment. and a review chapter on motivation in an organizational setting.

Alex Stajkovic is an Organizational Behavior (OB) professor who has conducted research on confidence and goal priming. He holds the Dean's Professorship in Business at the Wisconsin School of Business at the University of Wisconsin - Madison. His research bears on self-efficacy, confidence, and primed goals. Stajkovic co-authored papers with Albert Bandura, Edwin Locke, and Fred Luthans. Stajkovic is a contributing editor to the Journal of Applied Psychology, as well as a member of the Midwestern Psychological Association and Society for Science of Motivation.

Employee recognition is the timely, informal or formal acknowledgement of a person's behavior, effort, or business result that supports the organization's goals and values, and exceeds their superior's normal expectations. Recognition has been held to be a constructive response and a judgment made about a person's contribution, reflecting not just work performance but also personal dedication and engagement on a regular or ad hoc basis, and expressed formally or informally, individually or collectively, privately or publicly, and monetarily or non-monetarily.

Personal initiative (PI) is self-starting and proactive behavior that overcomes barriers to achieve a goal. The concept was developed by Michael Frese and coworkers in the 1990s.

References

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  40. ↑ Hassett, MP (2022). "The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce". Public Personal Management: 380–404.
  41. ↑ Eddy, S; Ng, AG (2017). "The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management". Human Resource Management Journal: 133–151.
  42. ↑ Chen, CA. "Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design". American Society for Public Administration: 194–215.
  43. ↑ Eddy, S; Ng, AG (2017). "The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management". Human Resource Management Journal: 133–151.
  44. ↑ Eddy, S; Ng, AG (2017). "The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management". Human Resource Management Journal: 133–151.
  45. ↑ Lee, HH (2021). "Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination". Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration: 274–293.
  46. ↑ "New Zealand Public Service Act 2020". Legislation New Zealand. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
  47. ↑ Lee, HH (2021). "Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination". Review of Public and Personnel Administration: 274–293.
  48. ↑ "Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service". Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission. Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
  49. ↑ "13-1151.00 - Training and Development Specialists". www.onetonline.org. Retrieved 1 March 2019.
  50. 1 2 3 Chen, Chung-An; Hsieh, Chih-Wei; Chen, Don-Yun (March 2021). "Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design". Review of Public Personnel Administration. 41 (1): 194–215. doi:10.1177/0734371X19872244. ISSN   0734-371X.
  51. ↑ Quratulain, Samina; Khan, Abdul Karim; Sabharwal, Meghna; Javed, Basharat (June 2021). "Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate". Review of Public Personnel Administration. 41 (2): 250–273. doi:10.1177/0734371X19876676. ISSN   0734-371X.

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