Vicarious trauma after viewing media

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Over the last fifty years, there has been an increase in the different types of media that are accessible to the public. [1] Most people use online search engines, social media, or other online news outlets to find out what is going on in the world. [2] This increase can lead to people easily viewing negative images and stories about traumatic events that they would not have been exposed to otherwise. One thing to consider is how the dissemination of this information may be impacting the mental health of people who identify with the victims of the violence they hear and see through the media. The viewing of these traumatic videos and stories can lead to the vicarious traumatization of the viewers. [3] [4] [5]    

Contents

Vicarious trauma develops after an individual learns or hears about someone else experiencing a traumatic event. The information they hear may have a negative psychological impact on the person even though they did not experience the trauma themselves. [6] Research on vicarious trauma has focused on how mental health providers, medical workers, and first responders respond to the trauma they hear about in their everyday work experiences. [6] [7] While the person does not directly experience the trauma, they have symptoms like an individual diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. [6] Some of those symptoms include hypervigilance, difficulties sleeping, changes in how they view the world and themselves, and intrusive images of the trauma. [7]

Media

As research on vicarious trauma has expanded, researchers and journalists have begun to analyze how it might impact the general public. One of the ways information about traumatic events is dispersed is through the media, which includes news broadcasts and social media applications. The New York Times commented on how even though traumatic events have happened since the dawn of time, the news, and more recently social media, is what allows people across the world to know about major events. [8] [9] The difference between major news organizations and social media is that most news organizations discuss how viewing traumatic or violent events impact their staff and consumers. [10] Some media organizations also make a point to flag content that could be considered disturbing to their viewers to decrease the amount of violent and traumatic content they release online. [10] While major news outlets often regulate what they post, they still show the aftermath of traumatic events on their websites and in their newspapers. Examples include pictures of the twin towers after 9/11, the Boston bombing, the Rodney King video, and footage of the L.A. riots.

Social media

While major media companies were the main source people received information about major events, people have also begun turning to social media to stay updated. Since the information is posted by private individuals, they are allowed to post unedited footage that may contain graphic and traumatic material to their social media platforms. [10] There is also the risk of having distressing content appear on someone's page as an advertisement while they are browsing material that does not relate to the traumatic event, [8] which can make it difficult to avoid since smartphones are constantly updating news around major events that happen in society. [11]  

Outcomes

Impact on mood

Due to the increase of online social interactions, researchers have questioned the impact of indirect online contact on the emotions and thoughts of online users. While past studies have found that emotions can spread between people during direct social contact due to concepts like mimicry, [12] researchers were unsure on if the same could happen through indirect contact made over social media. Coviello et al. (2014), found that people’s posts on social media influenced the emotions and behaviors of other people who were their friends or who followed their online account. [12] They also found that people tended to use language similar to the initial post they saw when responding or further commenting on their own posts to which causes them to further spread the same emotionally valent message to others. [13] [4] This research expanded on the knowledge that people’s emotions were only influenced by nonverbal communication like the facial expressions and body language of the people around them to now also being influenced by text-only communication. [12] [13]

Influence on trauma reactions

As discussed in the section above, emotional contagion can happen through different forms of indirect contact with media. Over the last decade, researchers have found data to support the idea that some people are vicariously traumatized when viewing or reading media pertaining to a traumatic event. [3] [4] [11] [14] Studies have questioned if media leads to a greater impact on the development of some symptoms of vicarious trauma and if a specific type of media had was greater impact than others. Holman et al. (2013) found that people who watched six or more hours of media coverage up to a week after the Boston bombings had higher stress levels than people who were directly exposed to the bombing. [3] Goodwin et al. (2013) found that the participants in their study showed greater stress reactions when they took in information about the trauma from social when compared to those who used more traditional forms of media. [15]

Researchers have shown that social media is a major risk factor for a person to develop trauma symptoms, [15] [16] or even be diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. [5] The frequency of exposure to traumatic or disturbing information through media is related to the development of anxiety and P.T.S.D.-related symptoms. [17] While the initial reaction to viewing media may cause acute stress symptoms, generally they decrease over time. Repeated exposure to the distressing information or images that may result in the development of longer-lasting symptoms. [17]

Related Research Articles

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person's life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event. Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play. A person with PTSD is at a higher risk of suicide and intentional self-harm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dialectical behavior therapy</span> Psychotherapy for emotional dysregulation

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is an evidence-based psychotherapy that began with efforts to treat personality disorders and interpersonal conflicts. Evidence suggests that DBT can be useful in treating mood disorders and suicidal ideation as well as for changing behavioral patterns such as self-harm and substance use. DBT evolved into a process in which the therapist and client work with acceptance and change-oriented strategies and ultimately balance and synthesize them—comparable to the philosophical dialectical process of thesis and antithesis, followed by synthesis.

Psychological trauma is an emotional response caused by severe distressing events such as accidents, violence, sexual assault, terror, or sensory overload.

Developmental disability is a diverse group of chronic conditions, comprising mental or physical impairments that arise before adulthood. Developmental disabilities cause individuals living with them many difficulties in certain areas of life, especially in "language, mobility, learning, self-help, and independent living". Developmental disabilities can be detected early on and persist throughout an individual's lifespan. Developmental disability that affects all areas of a child's development is sometimes referred to as global developmental delay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotional detachment</span> Inability and/or disinterest in emotionally connecting to others

In psychology, emotional detachment, also known as emotional blunting, is a condition or state in which a person lacks emotional connectivity to others, whether due to an unwanted circumstance or as a positive means to cope with anxiety. Such a coping strategy, also known as emotion focused-coping, is used when avoiding certain situations that might trigger anxiety. It refers to the evasion of emotional connections. Emotional detachment may be a temporary reaction to a stressful situation, or a chronic condition such as depersonalization-derealization disorder. It may also be caused by certain antidepressants. Emotional blunting, also known as reduced affect display, is one of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) is a stress-related mental disorder generally occurring in response to complex traumas, i.e. commonly prolonged or repetitive exposures to a series of traumatic events, within which individuals perceive little or no chance to escape.

Compassion fatigue is an evolving concept in the field of traumatology. The term has been used interchangeably with secondary traumatic stress (STS), which is sometimes simply described as the negative cost of caring. Secondary traumatic stress is the term commonly employed in academic literature, although recent assessments have identified certain distinctions between compassion fatigue and secondary traumatic stress (STS).

Critical incident stress management (CISM) was a controversial, non-empirical, adaptive, short-term psychological helping-process that focused solely on an immediate and identifiable problem. It included pre-incident preparedness to acute crisis management through post-crisis follow-up. Its purpose was to enable people to return to their daily routine more quickly and with less likelihood of experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, after researchers showed that debriefing techniques did not decrease rates of PTSD, CISM is now seldom used and has largely been replaced with immediate psychological care techniques that do not use debriefing such as those endorsed by the CDC, Red Cross, WHO, American Psychological Association and National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (NC-PTSD). Responsible practitioners who still use CISM must eliminate debriefing steps in order to remain compliant with best practices and clinical guidelines.

Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse, witnessing abuse of a sibling or parent, or having a mentally ill parent. These events have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts and can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being such as unsocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. Similarly, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Memory and trauma is the deleterious effects that physical or psychological trauma has on memory.

Vicarious trauma (VT) was a term invented by McCann and Pearlman that is used to describe how working with traumatized clients affects trauma therapists. Previously, the phenomenon was referred to as secondary traumatic stress coined by Dr. Charles Figley. The theory behind vicarious trauma is that the therapist has a profound world change and is permanently altered by the interaction of empathetic bonding with a client. This change is thought to have three conditional requirements: empathic engagement and exposure to graphic and traumatizing material, the therapist being exposed to human cruelty, and reenactment of trauma within the therapy process. This change can produce changes in a therapist's sense of spirituality, worldview, and self-identity.

PTSD or post-traumatic stress disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterised by intrusive thoughts and memories, dreams or flashbacks of the event; avoidance of people, places and activities that remind the individual of the event; ongoing negative beliefs about oneself or the world, mood changes and persistent feelings of anger, guilt or fear; alterations in arousal such as increased irritability, angry outbursts, being hypervigilant, or having difficulty with concentration and sleep.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgenerational trauma</span> Psychological trauma

Transgenerational trauma is the psychological and physiological effects that the trauma experienced by people has on subsequent generations in that group. The primary modes of transmission are the uterine environment during pregnancy causing epigenetic changes in the developing embryo, and the shared family environment of the infant causing psychological, behavioral and social changes in the individual. The term intergenerational transmission refers to instances whereby the traumatic effects are passed down from the directly traumatized generation [F0] to their offspring [F1], and transgenerational transmission is when the offspring [F1] then pass the effects down to descendants who have not been exposed to the initial traumatic event - at least the grandchildren [F2] of the original sufferer for males, and their great-grandchildren [F3] for females.

Race-based traumatic stress is the traumatic response to stress following a racial encounter. Robert T. Carter's (2007) theory of race-based traumatic stress implies that there are individuals of color who experience racial discrimination as traumatic, and often generate responses similar to post-traumatic stress. Race-based traumatic stress combines theories of stress, trauma and race-based discrimination to describe a particular response to negative racial encounters.

Secondary trauma can be incurred when an individual is exposed to people who have been traumatized themselves, disturbing descriptions of traumatic events by a survivor, or others inflicting cruelty on one another. Symptoms of secondary trauma are similar to those of PTSD. Secondary trauma has been researched in first responders, nurses and physicians, mental health care workers, and children of traumatized parents.

Compassion fatigue (CF) is an evolving concept in the field of traumatology. The term has been used interchangeably with secondary traumatic stress (STS)s. Secondary traumatic stress is the term commonly employed in academic literature, although recent assessments have identified certain distinctions between compassion fatigue and secondary traumatic stress (STS).

Racial trauma, or race-based traumatic stress, is the cumulative effects of racism on an individual’s mental and physical health. It has been observed in numerous BIPOC communities and people of all ages, including young children. Racial trauma can be experiences vicariously or directly. It has been linked to feelings of anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation, as well as other physical health issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dual representation theory</span>

Dual representation theory (DRT) is a psychological theory of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) developed by Chris Brewin, Tim Dalgleish, and Stephen Joseph in 1996. This theory proposes that certain symptoms of PTSD - such as nightmares, flashbacks, and emotional disturbance - may be attributed to memory processes that occur after exposure to a traumatic event. DRT proposes the existence of two separate memory systems that run in parallel during memory formation: the verbally accessible memory system (VAM) and situationally accessible memory system (SAM). The VAM system contains information that was consciously processed and thus can be voluntarily recalled or described. In contrast, the SAM system contains unconsciously processed sensory information that cannot be voluntarily recalled. This theory suggests that the VAM system is impaired during a traumatic event because conscious attention is narrowly drawn to threat-related information. Therefore, memory of the trauma is heavily focused on fear, which affects information processing. This gives rise to PTSD symptoms such as trauma-related cognitions, appraisals, and emotions. The SAM system captures vivid sensory information during the traumatic event, which is automatically recalled through exposure to trauma-related triggers. This system is thought to be responsible for the presence of flashbacks and nightmares in PTSD symptomatology.

In psychology, Trauma-informed feminist therapy is a model of trauma for both men and women that incorporates the client's sociopolitical context.

Hispanic immigrants living in the United States have been found to have higher levels of exposure to trauma and lower mental health service utilization than the general population. Those who met the criteria for asylum, and experience trauma before migrating, are vulnerable to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Higher levels of trauma-related symptoms are associated with increased post-migration living difficulties. Despite the need for mental health services for Hispanic immigrants living in the United States, cultural and structural barriers make accessing treatment challenging.

References

  1. ↑ Sullender, R. Scott (June 5, 2009). "Vicarious Grieving and the Media". Pastoral Psychology. 59 (2): 191–200. doi:10.1007/s11089-009-0227-5. ISSN   0031-2789. S2CID   145410045.
  2. ↑ Nielsen, Alessio Cornia, Annika Sehl, David A.L. Levy and Rasmus Kleis (2018). Private Sector News, Social Media Distribution, and Algorithm Change. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. ISBN   978-1-907384-49-3. OCLC   1275066280.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 3 Holman, E. Alison; Garfin, Dana Rose; Silver, Roxane Cohen (December 9, 2013). "Media's role in broadcasting acute stress following the Boston Marathon bombings". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (1): 93–98. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1316265110 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   3890785 . PMID   24324161.
  4. 1 2 3 Monfort, Emmanuel; Afzali, Mohammad Hassan (May 2017). "Traumatic stress symptoms after the November 13th 2015 Terrorist Attacks among Young Adults: The relation to media and emotion regulation". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 75: 68–74. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.02.015. PMID   28324678.
  5. 1 2 Ramsden, Pam (2015). "Viewing violent news on social media can cause trauma". Science Daily. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
  6. 1 2 3 Jenkins, Sharon Rae; Baird, Stephanie (October 2002). "Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma: A validational study". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 15 (5): 423–432. doi:10.1023/a:1020193526843. ISSN   0894-9867. PMID   12392231. S2CID   41100817.
  7. 1 2 Hallinan, Sean; Shiyko, Mariya; Volpe, Robert; Molnar, Beth E. (September 2021). "On the back burner: Challenges experienced by change agents addressing vicarious trauma in first response and victim service agencies". Traumatology. 27 (3): 316–325. doi:10.1037/trm0000291. ISSN   1085-9373. S2CID   229399133.
  8. 1 2 Wayne, Teddy (September 10, 2016). "The Trauma of Violent News on the Internet". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved October 17, 2021.
  9. ↑ Ben-Zur, Hasida; Gil, Sharon; Shamshins, Yinon (May 2012). "The relationship between exposure to terror through the media, coping strategies and resources, and distress and secondary traumatization". International Journal of Stress Management. 19 (2): 132–150. doi:10.1037/a0027864. ISSN   1573-3424.
  10. 1 2 3 "Can social media cause PTSD?". BBC News. May 25, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2021.
  11. 1 2 Goodwin, Robin; Lemola, Sakari; Ben-Ezra, Menachem (March 2018). "Media use and insomnia after terror attacks in France". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 98: 47–50. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.12.006. ISSN   0022-3956. PMID   29276963.
  12. 1 2 3 Coviello, Lorenzo; Sohn, Yunkyu; Kramer, Adam D. I.; Marlow, Cameron; Franceschetti, Massimo; Christakis, Nicholas A.; Fowler, James H. (March 12, 2014). "Detecting Emotional Contagion in Massive Social Networks". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e90315. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...990315C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090315 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3951248 . PMID   24621792.
  13. 1 2 Kramer, Adam D.I. (May 5, 2012). "The spread of emotion via facebook". Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 767–770. doi:10.1145/2207676.2207787. ISBN   9781450310154. S2CID   15763898.
  14. ↑ Pfefferbaum, Betty; Nitiéma, Pascal; Newman, Elana (March 26, 2019). "Is Viewing Mass Trauma Television Coverage Associated With Trauma Reactions in Adults and Youth? A Meta‐Analytic Review". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 32 (2): 175–185. doi: 10.1002/jts.22391 . ISSN   0894-9867. PMID   30913350. S2CID   85528574.
  15. 1 2 Goodwin, Robin; Palgi, Yuval; Hamama-Raz, Yaira; Ben-Ezra, Menachem (August 2013). "In the eye of the storm or the bullseye of the media: Social media use during Hurricane Sandy as a predictor of post-traumatic stress". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 47 (8): 1099–1100. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.04.006. ISSN   0022-3956. PMID   23673141.
  16. ↑ Goodwin, Robin; Palgi, Yuval; Lavenda, Osnat; Hamama-Raz, Yaira; Ben-Ezra, Menachem (May 23, 2015). "Association between Media Use, Acute Stress Disorder and Psychological Distress". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 84 (4): 253–254. doi:10.1159/000377706. ISSN   0033-3190. PMID   26022976. S2CID   28423082.
  17. 1 2 Feinstein, Anthony; Audet, Blair; Waknine, Elizabeth (August 1, 2014). "Witnessing images of extreme violence: a psychological study of journalists in the newsroom". JRSM Open. 5 (8): 205427041453332. doi:10.1177/2054270414533323. ISSN   2054-2704. PMC   4100239 . PMID   25289144.
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