Wildlife smuggling in southern Africa

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Map of Southern Africa Map-Africa-Southern Africa-Regions.png
Map of Southern Africa

The wildlife trafficking network in southern Africa involves the illicit extraction, transportation and transaction of wildlife within and across the nations of Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Eswatini. Involvement in the illegal trading network can be divided into three general roles: poachers, traffickers and intermediaries, and consumers. There are a wide range of motives depending on an individual's role in the network. Some motivations include profit, sustenance, and reducing human-wildlife conflict.

Contents

Wildlife commodities

Animals subject to wildlife trafficking include any animal that is not explicitly sanctioned by the government to wound, kill, or export. In the southern region of Africa, some species that are common in the illegal trading network are exotic birds, large African cats, rhinoceros, and elephants.

Threatened exotic bird species are the most exported wildlife from the southern region of Africa. [1] Top importer of exotic birds is South Africa, though there are also buyers in the United States and Europe. [1] The African Gray Parrot ( Psittacus erithacus ) is the most poached parrot of South Africa. [2]

Large African cats that are poached include lions, cheetahs, and leopards. Body parts of African cats, particularly lions, are traded both pan-nationally and transnationally for zootherapeutic practices. [3] Eighty percent of the African Lion ( Panthera leo ) population is concentrated in east and southern Africa. [4] Trade of lion skin, teeth, and claws occurs most frequently within the continent. [3] While domestic trade of lion parts is much more common, there is also a significant amount of lion bone trade across East-Southeast Asia. [3]

White Rhinoceros in Southern Africa Photograph of two White Rhinoceros.jpg
White Rhinoceros in Southern Africa

Elephants and rhinoceros are poached for ivory and rhinoceros horn. The trends of rhinoceros and elephant poaching are largely dependent on global demand. Rhinoceros horns are used for decorative purposes and some Asian medicines. [5] In South Africa, rhino poaching commonly happens on privately owned land, which is difficult for officials to prevent. Another common place to poach is Kruger National Park. [6] The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the elephant species that inhabits southern Africa. While elephant populations in Eastern and Central Africa are steadily decreasing, elephant population sizes in southern Africa are stable. [7] The current elephant population in southern Africa is 293, 447. [8] However, poaching continues to threaten the status of elephant populations, specifically in Kruger National Park, where the PIKE (Proportion of Illegally Killed Elephants) value has increased 23% from 2014 to 2015. [7]

Poachers

Poachers function as the suppliers to the wildlife market. Illegal poaching occurs locally and on larger, commercial scales. There are various motivations for poaching, some of which include an aim to reduce human-wildlife conflict, trophy hunting, and consumer demand.

Small-scale poaching may occur to protect domestic animals and crops. Farmers poach predatory animals, such as lions, cheetahs and leopards. [5] Another driver of poaching for locals is inadequate sources of income. Poaching presents a lucrative alternative for people in need. In rural areas in Namibia, a single poached animal can sell for one-hundred USD. [9] Also, one rhinoceros horn can sell for six-hundred USD. [10]

Large-scale poaching is more complex and may include more organized groups. Criminal groups consist of advanced communication systems, automobiles and weapons that facilitate large quantities of killings with minimal detection. [11] Commercial poachers pay individuals who have limited sources for income. The complexity and distance between intermediaries and poachers makes it difficult to identify the source. [5]

Traffickers and intermediaries

Traffickers facilitate the transport of products from the poachers to the consumers. Intermediaries include politicians that are hired to help transport illegal goods across borders. [12] Other intermediaries are people who are unaware of their involvement. [12] Local traders can act as the “middle-man” between poachers and urban exporters. [6]

Wildlife traffickers tend to travel through areas where enforcement is more lenient. Crime syndicates move wildlife commodities through an organized network of people. Transporters hide living and dead wildlife commodities in luggage. [13] Corrupt government officials also play a significant role in the transport of wildlife commodities. The seizures of wildlife poaching is largely undocumented in some areas, such as Tanzania, which suggests there are state workers forging paperwork for unlawful commodities [14]

Consumers

African consumers

Consumers at the end of the market change can be local or international. African consumers purchase illegal wildlife commodities for pets, medicinal uses, and belief uses. In Namibia and South Africa, the trade of exotic birds and reptiles are popular among consumers as pets. [5] Exotic birds are popular pets because they require minimal maintenance and are low-cost. Local collectors display exotic pets to reel in tourists and accrue revenue. [5]

Belief uses of illegal wildlife commodities vary by region. For example, leopard paws are sold in South Africa to fight against bad luck. [5] Pangolins are prevalent in Central, East, and Southern Africa, and have a variety of uses that are specific to different areas. [15] African Vulture trade also occurs throughout the southern region of Africa, as vulture bushmeat has medicinal and belief uses.

Global consumers

According to the CITES database, most international wildlife exports from Africa go to Europe, Japan and the United States. [1] The buyer are pet shops, private collectors, animal brokers, game farms, biomedical labs, circuses, exotic meat dealers. [16] International consumers purchase illegal wildlife products for medicinal uses, pets, or status symbols.

Responses

There is a wide range of government enforcement and regulation to combat illegal wildlife trafficking. In South Africa and Namibia regulation is a prominent force to defend against illegal trade. The penalties for unauthorized poaching can result in prison sentences of fines. [17] Also, the Trade in Wildlife Information Exchange (TWIX) was implemented for the Southern Africa Development Community (SADF) in 2019 to enforce wildlife trade regulation and increase communication about illicit trade of wildlife in the southern region of Africa.

Organizations such as CITES and TRAFFIC work to track the illegal trafficking of wildlife commodities, identify the animals that are most at risk, and promote the conservation of wildlife. There are also initiatives to increase local community participation in wildlife conservation. The Integrated Rural Resource Development Project in Zambia ( IRRDP) puts local people in charge of protecting wildlife. [5]

See also

General references

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poaching</span> Illegal hunting of wildlife

Poaching is the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set against the hunting privileges of nobility and territorial rulers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black rhinoceros</span> Species of mammal

The black rhinoceros is a species of rhinoceros, native to eastern Africa and southern Africa, including Angola, Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Although the species is referred to as black, its colours vary from brown to grey. It is the only extant species of the genus Diceros.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhinoceros</span> Family of mammals

A rhinoceros, commonly abbreviated to rhino, is a member of any of the five extant species of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae; it can also refer to a member of any of the extinct species of the superfamily Rhinocerotoidea. Two of the extant species are native to Africa, and three to South and Southeast Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White rhinoceros</span> Species of large land mammal

The white rhinoceros, white rhino or square-lipped rhinoceros is the largest extant species of rhinoceros. It has a wide mouth used for grazing and is the most social of all rhino species. The white rhinoceros consists of two subspecies: the southern white rhinoceros, with an estimated 16,803 wild-living animals, and the much rarer northern white rhinoceros. The northern subspecies has very few remaining individuals, with only two confirmed left in 2018. Sudan, the world's last known male northern white rhinoceros, died in Kenya on 19 March 2018 at age 45.

WildAid is an environmental organization based in San Francisco, California, United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Garamba National Park</span> National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Garamba National Park is a national park in the north-eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo covering nearly 5,200 km2 (2,000 sq mi). It is among Africa's oldest parks and was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1980 for its protection of critical habitat for northern white rhinoceroses, African elephants, hippopotamuses, and giraffes. Garamba National Park has been managed by African Parks in partnership with the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature since 2005.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife trade</span> Worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of wildlife

Wildlife trade refers to the products that are derived from non-domesticated animals or plants usually extracted from their natural environment or raised under controlled conditions. It can involve the trade of living or dead individuals, tissues such as skins, bones or meat, or other products. Legal wildlife trade is regulated by the United Nations' Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which currently has 184 member countries called Parties. Illegal wildlife trade is widespread and constitutes one of the major illegal economic activities, comparable to the traffic of drugs and weapons.

TRAFFIC, also known as the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network, is a global non-governmental organization monitoring the trade in wild plants and animals. TRAFFIC focuses on preserving biodiversity and sustainable legal wildlife trade while working against unsustainable illegal wildlife trade. It was originally created in 1976 as a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and evolved into a strategic alliance of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the IUCN.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife Alliance</span> US-based non-profit organization

Wildlife Alliance is an international non-profit forest and wildlife conservation organization with current programs in Cambodia. It is headquartered in New York City, with offices in Phnom Penh. The logo of the organization is the Asian elephant, an emblematic species and the namesake for the Southwest Elephant Corridor that Wildlife Alliance saved when it was under intense threat of poaching and habitat destruction in 2001. It is today one of the last remaining unfragmented elephant corridors in Asia. Due to Government rangers' and Wildlife Alliance's intensive anti-poaching efforts, there have been zero elephant killings since 2006. Dr. Suwanna Gauntlett is the Founder and Chief Executive Officer of Wildlife Alliance, and one of the original founders of WildAid. The organization is governed by a board of directors and an international advisory board that provides guidance on strategy, fundraising, and outreach.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife smuggling</span> Illegal gathering, transport and distribution of wild animals

Wildlife smuggling or wildlife trafficking concerns the illegal gathering and trade of endangered species and protected wildlife, including plants and byproducts or products utilizing a species. Research on wildlife smuggling has increased, however, knowledge of the illicit trade remains limited. The differences between international policies and tendencies likely contribute to the extensive estimated range of wildlife smuggling, anywhere from $5-$23 billion, with an additional $67-$193 billion when timber and fish are included. The prolific growth of wildlife smuggling makes it the fourth-largest criminal enterprise globally after drug, firearm, and human trafficking. Products demanded by the trade include but are not limited to ivory, bushmeat, traditional medicine, and exotic pets. China and the United States are the largest buyers in the illegal wildlife trade. It often involves other illegal activities such as tranquilizing animals without proper authorization.

Esmond Bradley Martin was an American conservationist who fought for both the preservation of elephants against the illegal ivory trade, and for the rhinoceros against the illegal trade of rhinoceros horns. A trained geographer, Martin was considered a world-renowned expert in the ivory trade and rhinoceros horn trade. He had been a special envoy of the United Nations for the conservation of rhinoceros. Militant for a reduction in the demand for ivory to dry up the market, he participated notably in the stop of rhinoceros horn trade to China in 1993 and ivory in 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ivory trade</span> Commercial, often illegal, trade of animal ivory

The ivory trade is the commercial, often illegal trade in the ivory tusks of the hippopotamus, walrus, narwhal, black and white rhinos, mammoth, and most commonly, African and Asian elephants.

The Wildlife Conservation Network (WCN) is a United States–based 501(c)(3) non-profit organization that protects endangered wildlife by supporting conservationists in the field who promote coexistence between wildlife and people. WCN does this by providing its partners with capital, strategic capacity-building services, training, and operational support. WCN has been given a top rating amongst wildlife conservation charities, with a four star rating on Charity Navigator.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Destruction of ivory</span> Used to deter the poaching of elephants

The destruction of ivory is a technique used by governments and conservation groups to deter the poaching of elephants for their tusks and to suppress the illegal ivory trade. As of 2016, more than 263 tonnes (580,000 lb) of ivory have been destroyed, typically by burning or crushing, in these high-profile events in 21 countries around the world. Kenya held the first event in 1989, as well as the largest event in 2016, when a total of 105 tonnes (231,000 lb) of ivory were incinerated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Species affected by poaching</span>

Many species are affected by poaching, including illegal hunting, fishing and capturing of wild animals, and, in a recent usage, the illegal harvesting of wild plant species. The article provides an overview of species currently endangered or impaired by poaching in the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and South-East Asia.

Wayne Lotter was a South African wildlife conservationist. Lotter was one of the co-founders of the PAMS Foundation, a not for profit conservation organisation based in Tanzania. Lotter also previously served as Vice President of the International Ranger Federation.

Wildlife Angel is a wildlife protection non-governmental organization (NGO) based in Strasbourg (France). Its three main objectives are to protect wildlife, to protect rangers and to fight poaching by intervening in national parks, private reserves and working with other non-governmental organizations (NGO). Wildlife Angel intervenes directly in the field with rangers in charge of animal protection.

Steven R. Galster is an American environmental and human rights investigator and counter-trafficking program designer. Since 1987, he has planned and participated in investigations and remedial programs to stop wildlife and human trafficking and to mitigate corruption and build governance in Asia, Africa, Russia, South America, and the USA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhinoceros poaching in Southern Africa</span>

Rhinoceros poaching in southern Africa is the illegal act of slaughtering rhinoceros in the southern African countries of Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa, where most of Africa's rhinos live. The most common reason for rhino poaching is to meet the high demand for their horns in Asian countries, where the horn is predominantly used in Traditional Chinese Medicine but is increasingly being used as a symbol of wealth and prosperity. In previous generations, the most common rhino poaching activity was hunting for recreational purposes. Because of excessive poaching, rhino populations have decline rapidly since the 1970s, leaving some species critically endangered and facing extinction.

Hemmersbach Rhino Force is a direct action conservation organization acting with a focus on the African rhinos. Rhino Force's main activities consist of anti-poaching rangers in the Greater Kruger National Park, a biobank called Hemmersbach Rhino Force Cryovault to preserve rhino genes and the Black Rhino Reintroduction to bring back rhinos to the Mid Zambezi Valley in Zimbabwe.

References

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  2. ↑ Hinsley, Amy; King, Emily; Sinovas, Pablo (2016), "Tackling Illegal Wildlife Trade by Improving Traceability: A Case Study of the Potential for Stable Isotope Analysis", The Geography of Environmental Crime, Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 91–119, doi:10.1057/978-1-137-53843-7_5, ISBN   9781137538420
  3. 1 2 3 Macdonald, David W.; Newton, David J.; Loveridge, Andrew J.; Williams, Vivienne L. (2017-10-26). "Questionnaire survey of the pan-African trade in lion body parts". PLOS ONE. 12 (10): e0187060. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1287060W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187060 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   5658145 . PMID   29073202.
  4. ↑ "African Lions". WWF. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
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  6. 1 2 Harrison, Joseph R.; Roberts, David L.; Hernandez-Castro, Julio (2016-04-28). "Assessing the extent and nature of wildlife trade on the dark web". Conservation Biology. 30 (4): 900–904. doi:10.1111/cobi.12707. ISSN   0888-8892. PMID   26918590. S2CID   3774575.
  7. 1 2 "CITES: African elephant poaching down, ivory seizures up and hit record high | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  8. ↑ "STATUS OF ELEPHANT POPULATIONS, LEVELS OF ILLEGAL KILLING AND THE TRADE IN IVORY: A REPORT TO THE CITES STANDING COMMITTEE" (PDF). CITES Report: 3. 2017 – via CITES.
  9. ↑ Bayraktar, Nihal (2017), "Changing International Trade Linkages in Sub-Saharan Africa: BRIC versus OECD Countries", Foreign Capital Flows and Economic Development in Africa, Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 299–321, doi:10.1057/978-1-137-53496-5_14, ISBN   9781137534958
  10. ↑ Anderson, Bradley. Wildlife poaching : Africa's surging trafficking threat. OCLC   882561045.
  11. ↑ "Poaching animals, explained". Animals. 2019-02-12. Archived from the original on May 7, 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  12. 1 2 Phelps, Jacob; Biggs, Duan; Webb, Edward L (2016-09-21). "Tools and terms for understanding illegal wildlife trade" (PDF). Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 14 (9): 479–489. doi:10.1002/fee.1325. ISSN   1540-9295.
  13. ↑ "Detect Transit Routes". Wildlife Crime Tech Challenge. Retrieved 2019-05-09.
  14. ↑ Tafirenyika, Masimba (2019-12-31), "2.6 Commerce, Crime, and Corruption: Illicit Financial Flows from Africa", Global Africa, University of California Press, pp. 130–140, doi:10.1525/9780520962514-016, ISBN   9780520962514, S2CID   198723366
  15. ↑ "The world's most trafficked mammal is being slaughtered for its scales". African Wildlife Foundation. 2013-02-25. Retrieved 2019-05-09.
  16. ↑ Warchol, Greg; Harrington, Michael (2016-01-28). "Exploring the dynamics of South Africa's illegal abalone trade via routine activities theory". Trends in Organized Crime. 19 (1): 21–41. doi:10.1007/s12117-016-9265-4. ISSN   1084-4791. S2CID   147529164.
  17. ↑ "Offences Linked To Terrorist Offences", Fighting Terrorism through Multilevel Criminal Legislation, Brill, 2009, pp. 241–254, doi:10.1163/ej.9789004177574.i-488.55, ISBN   9789004177574
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