Yellow cassava

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Yellow cassava is a new, yellow-fleshed breed of one of the most popular root crops in the tropics. Regular cassava is a staple crop in tropical countries which 300 million people rely upon for at least 10% of their daily caloric intake, in 15 African countries [1] "In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, cassava is estimated to provide more than 1000 kcal/day to over 40 million people". [1] Three yellow root cassava varieties, UMUCASS 36, UMUCASS 37, and UMUCASS 38, are being grown (under the Harvest Plus Project) [2] [3] in Nigeria for their high concentrations of β-carotene. β-carotene is a precursor to Vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a major issue, especially in Africa. Nigeria in particular sees a prevalence of Vitamin A deficiency in nearly one third of children under five years old. [4] Since cassava is a major food staple, yellow cassava shows great potential to alleviate Vitamin A deficiency in Africa.

Contents

Description

Yellow cassava is similar to ordinary varieties of cassava (Manihot esculenta, see cassava) but it has a yellow flesh inside the root, which is generally white in ordinary varieties. [2] Cassava is a woody shrub that grows large roots, which are harvested for consumption. The roots consist of three parts: the central pith, the peel, and a vascular bundle within the central pith. [1] The new yellow varieties have high yields and are resistant to many pests and diseases. Like ordinary cassava, it does not need nutrient rich soils or extensive land preparation and does not suffer during droughts. [5]

History

Cassava originated from South America. The three varieties of yellow cassava, UMUCASS 36, UMUCASS 37, and UMUCASS 38, are the results of a 12-year contest in Nigeria funded by HarvestPlus, [6] through the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and Nigeria's National Root Crop Research Institute. [4] Breeding is ongoing and new innovations hope to achieve a β-carotene level of 15 micrograms/gram by 2015. [4]

Growing conditions

The new yellow varieties have high yields and are resistant to many pests and diseases. Like ordinary cassava, they do not need nutrient rich soils or extensive land preparation and do not suffer significantly as many other crops during droughts. [5]

Post-harvest processing

Cassava is usually stored in the ground until needed, as it is highly perishable after harvest. [1] Drying of the tuber is one simple method of cassava preservation; however some methods of drying are more effective than others in terms of retaining β-carotene levels. Oven drying at 60°C was shown to maintain 72% of the β-carotene levels though the retention fell to 40% after four weeks in storage. Sun drying only resulted in a 38% retention of β-carotene levels, and after four weeks in storage, the levels fell to about 18%. [7] β-carotene retention can be improved by pretreatments such as blanching and osmotic dehydration. [3] Peeling of cassava roots is very labour-intensive. Breeding efforts have been executed to select for a white peel in order to reduce the labour associated with peel removal. One cultivar, Branca de Santa Catarina, has been selected for this reason. [1] Though cassava is easily perishable once harvested, it is beneficial to rural farmers because it can act as an insurance crop during droughts or other crop failures. However, carotenoid accumulation in cassava has been found to be accompanied by marked reductions in post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) of storage roots. [8] This is worth looking into to maximize the potential of this staple crop for both nutritional and industrial use.

Genetic stocks/breeding

Three genetic types are being grown in Nigeria, UMUCASS 36, UMUCASS 37, and UMUCASS 38. [2] [3] Cassava can reproduce sexually or by propagation. [9] Yellow cassava cannot be purchased from any producers currently, but a distribution system is being implemented in Nigeria providing 25,000 local households with stems under the condition that they will share their stems with other rural farmers the next season. [4] This is the main approach to widen the distribution of yellow cassava.

Complaints about yellow cassava (controversies)

In 2011, environmental rights action group Friends of the Earth Nigeria (FoEN) [10] unsuccessfully demanded a halt to any research on genetically modified cassava in Nigeria by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) research team, arguing that IITA is undermining biodiversity.

"We can get vitamin A from carrots,' Mariann Bassey, coordinator of Environmental Rights Action/Friends of the Earth Nigeria (FoEN), told journalists. 'We do not need this so-called "biofortified" cassava. Why will you (IITA) not leave this classic Southern crop alone?" Bassey said biofortified cassava research was a replay of what she termed the "Golden Rice hoax". According to Bassey, Golden Rice, developed in 1999 to treat vitamin A deficiency, had fundamental problems. She said an adult would need to eat around nine kg of cooked rice a day for the required intake of vitamin A, whereas eating just two carrots would suffice. [11]

Carrots, however, are not frequently consumed or available in much of Nigeria. Researchers have examined consumer willingness to purchase and eat yellow cassava in Nigeria and found that, in the absence of nutritional information, light yellow varieties are prized over white ones in the southwest (Oyo State) but not the southeast (Imo State). With an information campaign, yellow varieties capture larger premiums over white in all regions. [12]

Consumption and uses

The edible portion of the cassava root is the central pith. [1] It is an excellent source of carbohydrates. [3] The peel surrounding the root is inedible, although it can be used as feed for pigs and goats. Some farmers will harvest and eat the leaves as a vegetable. These "leaves are a major component of the diet" in The "Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Guinea". [1]

Nutritional information

Vitamin A deficiency is common in sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, it affects about 20% of pregnant women and 30% of children under five. It can impair immune systems and vision which could cause blindness and, in some cases, death. [2] Yellow cassava contains high levels of β-carotene, which is a precursor to vitamin A. Cassava is also a major source of carbohydrates, 80% of which are starches. [1] The new, yellow cassava can provide up to 25% of daily recommended Vitamin A intake. [4] Since cassava is a major part of many people's diets, introducing cassava bio-fortified with Vitamin A is an excellent innovation to improve health on a large scale.

Social/cultural benefits/issues

It is normally risky to change the colour of a staple crop because colour preference can negatively affect consumer adoption rates. This is not the case with yellow cassava. Since local consumers often add palm oil to white cassava flour in their foods, they are normally accustomed to the golden colour. Therefore, the yellow colour has been shown not to deter consumers. [4]

Constraints to wider adoption

Cassava is primarily grown and eaten in rural areas. [1] Its perishability is a constraint to breeding and innovation because when the crop starts to rot within days, it cannot be analyzed in a lab for any long periods of time. [4] Since it is highly perishable, it is not a good export crop and its distribution requires a localized approach. [4]

Practical information

Since cassava can be reproduced through propagation, cutting off part of the stem and sharing it with other farmers is a good way to provide Vitamin A-rich yellow cassava to rural populations. When preserving cassava, pretreating prior to drying can have a positive effect of the level of β-carotene retention during storage. Since cassava does not have a critical time of harvest, it is recommended to grow a lot of cassava and harvest it the day of consumption. [1] This makes cassava a good insurance crop for times when food is scarce.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carotene</span> Class of compounds

The term carotene (also carotin, from the Latin carota, "carrot") is used for many related unsaturated hydrocarbon substances having the formula C40Hx, which are synthesized by plants but in general cannot be made by animals (with the exception of some aphids and spider mites which acquired the synthesizing genes from fungi). Carotenes are photosynthetic pigments important for photosynthesis. Carotenes contain no oxygen atoms. They absorb ultraviolet, violet, and blue light and scatter orange or red light, and (in low concentrations) yellow light.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vitamin A</span> Essential nutrient

Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin and an essential nutrient for humans. It is a group of organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids. Vitamin A has multiple functions: it is essential for embryo development and growth, for maintenance of the immune system, and for vision, where it combines with the protein opsin to form rhodopsin – the light-absorbing molecule necessary for both low-light and color vision.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cassava</span> Species of flowering plant in the spurge family Euphorbiaceae

Manihot esculenta, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca, is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates. Though it is often called yuca in parts of Spanish America and in the United States, it is not related to yucca, a shrub in the family Asparagaceae. Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, but substantial quantities are used to extract cassava starch, called tapioca, which is used for food, animal feed, and industrial purposes. The Brazilian farinha, and the related garri of West Africa, is an edible coarse flour obtained by grating cassava roots, pressing moisture off the obtained grated pulp, and finally drying it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tapioca</span> Starch extracted from cassava roots

Tapioca is a starch extracted from the storage roots of the cassava plant, a species native to the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, but whose use is now spread throughout South America. It is a perennial shrub adapted to the hot conditions of tropical lowlands. Cassava copes better with poor soils than many other food plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sago</span> Starch extracted from tropical palm stems

Sago is a starch extracted from the pith, or spongy core tissue, of various tropical palm stems, especially those of Metroxylon sagu. It is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands, where it is called saksak, rabia and sagu. The largest supply of sago comes from Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia and Malaysia. Large quantities of sago are sent to Europe and North America for cooking purposes. It is traditionally cooked and eaten in various forms, such as rolled into balls, mixed with boiling water to form a glue-like paste (papeda), or as a pancake.

Vitamin deficiency is the condition of a long-term lack of a vitamin. When caused by not enough vitamin intake it is classified as a primary deficiency, whereas when due to an underlying disorder such as malabsorption it is called a secondary deficiency. An underlying disorder may be metabolic – as in a genetic defect for converting tryptophan to niacin – or from lifestyle choices that increase vitamin needs, such as smoking or drinking alcohol. Government guidelines on vitamin deficiencies advise certain intakes for healthy people, with specific values for women, men, babies, the elderly, and during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Many countries have mandated vitamin food fortification programs to prevent commonly occurring vitamin deficiencies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden rice</span> Variety of genetically modified rice

Golden rice is a variety of rice produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the edible parts of the rice. It is intended to produce a fortified food to be grown and consumed in areas with a shortage of dietary vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency causes xerophthalmia, a range of eye conditions from night blindness to more severe clinical outcomes such as keratomalacia and corneal scars, and permanent blindness. It also increases risk of mortality from measles and diarrhea in children. In 2013, the prevalence of deficiency was the highest in sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia.

<i>Scorzonera hispanica</i> Species of plant

Scorzonera hispanica, commonly known as black salsify or Spanish salsify, also known as black oyster plant, serpent root, viper's herb, viper's grass or simply scorzonera, is a perennial member of the genus Scorzonera in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), cultivated as a root vegetable in the same way as purple salsify, also in the sunflower family. It is native to Southern Europe and cultivated as a crop in Southern and Central Europe. It grows on nutrient poor soils, dry pasture, rocky areas, in thickets and on limy or marly soils of temperate zones.

β-Carotene Chemical compound

β-Carotene (beta-carotene) is an organic, strongly coloured red-orange pigment abundant in fungi, plants, and fruits. It is a member of the carotenes, which are terpenoids (isoprenoids), synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units and thus having 40 carbons. Among the carotenes, β-carotene is distinguished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. β-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arracacha</span> Root vegetable originally from the Andes

Arracacha is a root vegetable that originates in the Andes, whose starchy taproot is a popular food item across South America where it is a major commercial crop.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yam (vegetable)</span> Edible starchy tuber

Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus Dioscorea that form edible tubers. Yams are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in many temperate and tropical regions, especially in West Africa, South America and the Caribbean, Asia, and Oceania. The tubers themselves, also called "yams", come in a variety of forms owing to numerous cultivars and related species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetable</span> Edible plant or part of a plant, involved in cooking

Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. An alternative definition of the term is applied somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural tradition. It may exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits, flowers, nuts, and cereal grains, but include savoury fruits such as tomatoes and courgettes, flowers such as broccoli, and seeds such as pulses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carrot</span> Root vegetable, usually orange in color

The carrot is a root vegetable, typically orange in color, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist, all of which are domesticated forms of the wild carrot, Daucus carota, native to Europe and Southwestern Asia. The plant probably originated in Persia and was originally cultivated for its leaves and seeds. The most commonly eaten part of the plant is the taproot, although the stems and leaves are also eaten. The domestic carrot has been selectively bred for its enlarged, more palatable, less woody-textured taproot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biofortification</span> Breeding crops for higher nutritional value

Biofortification is the idea of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be done either through conventional selective breeding, or through genetic engineering. Biofortification differs from ordinary fortification because it focuses on making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are growing, rather than having nutrients added to the foods when they are being processed. This is an important improvement on ordinary fortification when it comes to providing nutrients for the rural poor, who rarely have access to commercially fortified foods. As such, biofortification is seen as an upcoming strategy for dealing with deficiencies of micronutrients in low and middle-income countries. In the case of iron, the WHO estimated that biofortification could help curing the 2 billion people suffering from iron deficiency-induced anemia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cassava-based dishes</span>

A great variety of cassava-based dishes are consumed in the regions where cassava is cultivated, and the ingredient is included many national or ethnic specialities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yam production in Nigeria</span>

Nigeria is by far the world’s largest producer of yams, accounting for over 70–76 percent of the world production. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization report, in 1985, Nigeria produced 18.3 million tonnes of yam from 1.5 million hectares, representing 73.8 percent of total yam production in Africa. According to 2008 figures, yam production in Nigeria has nearly doubled since 1985, with Nigeria producing 35.017 million metric tonnes with value equivalent of US$5.654 billion. In perspective, the world's second and third largest producers of yams, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, only produced 6.9 and 4.8 million tonnes of yams in 2008 respectively. According to the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria accounted for about 70 percent of the world production amounting to 17 million tonnes from land area 2,837,000 hectares under yam cultivation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cassava production in Nigeria</span>

Cassava production is vital to the economy of Nigeria as the country is the world's largest producer of the commodity. The crop is produced in 24 of the country's 36 states. In 1999, Nigeria produced 33 million tonnes, while a decade later, it produced approximately 45 million tonnes, which is almost 19% of production in the world. The average yield per hectare is 10.6 tonnes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Staple food</span> Food that is eaten routinely and considered a dominant portion of a standard diet

A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for a given person or group of people, supplying a large fraction of energy needs and generally forming a significant proportion of the intake of other nutrients as well. A staple food of a specific society may be eaten as often as every day or every meal, and most people live on a diet based on just a small number of food staples. Specific staples vary from place to place, but typically are inexpensive or readily available foods that supply one or more of the macronutrients and micronutrients needed for survival and health: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins. Typical examples include tubers and roots, grains, legumes, and seeds. Among them, cereals, legumes, tubers, and roots account for about 90% of the world's food calories intake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BioAnalyt</span>

BioAnalyt is a privately held product-innovation company based in Teltow, Germany. The company focuses on developing, manufacturing, and marketing portable rapid test kits. Being sold under the name iCheck, the kits measure the concentration of vitamin A, total carotenoids, iron, or iodine in food and biological fluids. The test kits are easy to use, provide quantitative results within several minutes time. Displaying an innovative alternative to the established laboratory methods. In addition to products, BioAnalyt provides a broad spectrum of services connected with control of food quality or food fortification; which analyses of large-scale coverage studies in developing countries.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bokanga, M. (2000). Cassava: Post-harvest operations. Information Network on Post-Harvest Operations. 1-26. FAO Cassava post-harvest pdf Archived 2014-04-22 at the Wayback Machine
  2. 1 2 3 4 Egesi, Chiedozie. (2011). New improved cassava varieties released in Nigeria. Integrated Breeding Platform. integratedbreeding.net Improved cassava varieties in Nigeria Archived 2012-05-09 at the Wayback Machine
  3. 1 2 3 4 Nascimento, P., Fernandes, N., Mauro, M., & Kimura, M. (2007). Beta-carotene stability during drying and storage of cassava and sweet potato. II International Symposium on Human Health Effects of Fruits and Vegetables: FAVHEALTH 2007 841, 363-366. Beta-carotene in drying and storage of cassava Archived 2014-03-29 at the Wayback Machine
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 WRENmedia. (2012) Green light for yellow cassava. New Agriculturalist. New Agriculturalist - Green light for yellow cassava Archived 2012-11-03 at the Wayback Machine
  5. 1 2 Consortium. (2012). Nigeria releases Vitamin A cassava to improve public health for millions. Stories of Change, CGIAR. CGIAR Cassava and Vitamin A Archived 2012-12-14 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ↑ "Farmers get provitamin A cassava planting materials for 2013 planting season". Archived from the original on 2015-05-02. Retrieved 2015-08-28.
  7. ↑ Chavez, A., Sánchez, T., Ceballos, H., Rodriguez-Amaya, D., Nestel, P., Tohme, J. and Ishitani, M. (2007). Retention of carotenoids in cassava roots submitted to different processing methods. J. Sci. Food Agric. 87:388-393. Cited in Nascimento, P., Fernandes, N., Mauro, M., & Kimura, M. (2007). Beta-carotene stability during drying and storage of cassava and sweet potato. II International Symposium on Human Health Effects of Fruits and Vegetables: FAVHEALTH 2007 841, 363-366. Retention of carotenoids in cassava processing Archived 2014-03-29 at the Wayback Machine
  8. ↑ Beyene, Getu; Solomon, Felix; Chauhan, Raj Deepika; Gaitan-Solis, Eliana; Narayanan, Narayanan; Gehan, Jackson; Siritunga, Dimuth; Stevens, Robyn L.; Jifon, John; Van Eck, Joyce; Linsler, Ed; Gehan, Malia; Ilyas, Muhammad; Fregene, Martin; Sayre, Richard T.; Anderson, Paul; Taylor, Nigel; Cahoon, Edgar (27 December 2017). "Provitamin A Biofortification of Cassava Enhances Shelf-Life but Reduces Dry Matter Content of Storage Roots Due to Altered Carbon Partitioning into Starch". Plant Biotechnology. 16 (6): 1186–1200. doi:10.1111/pbi.12862. PMC   5978869 . PMID   29193665.
  9. ↑ Ceballos, H., Iglesias, C., Perez, J., & Dixon, A. (2004). Cassava breeding: Opportunities and challenges. Plant Molecular Biology, 56(4), 503-516. scholarsportal pdf
  10. ↑ "ERA - Environmental Rights Action - Environmental Justice Organisations, Liabilities and Trade". Archived from the original on 2014-12-08. Retrieved 2014-12-07.
  11. ↑ "NIGERIA: Not Everyone Pleased with New Vitamin A-Fortified Cassava". Archived from the original on 2014-12-08. Retrieved 2014-12-07.
  12. ↑ Oparinde, Adewale, Abhijit Banerji, Ekin Birol, and Paul Ilona. Information and consumer willingness to pay for biofortified yellow cassava: evidence from experimental auctions in Nigeria. Vol. 13. Intl Food Policy Res Inst, 2014.
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