Advertising in biology

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Red deer stag advertises its size honestly by roaring in the breeding season, reducing the need to fight. Red deer 2009.jpg
Red deer stag advertises its size honestly by roaring in the breeding season, reducing the need to fight.

Advertising in biology means the use of displays by organisms such as animals and plants to signal their presence for some evolutionary reason.

Contents

Such signalling may be honest, used to attract other organisms, as when flowers use bright colours, patterns, and scent to attract pollinators such as bees; or, again honestly, to warn off other organisms, as when distasteful animals use warning coloration to prevent attacks from potential predators. Such honest advertising benefits both the sender and the receiver.

Other organisms may advertise dishonestly; in Batesian mimicry, edible animals more or less accurately mimic distasteful animals to reduce their own risk of being attacked by predators.

In plants

Insect-pollinated flowers use a combination of cues to advertise themselves to insects. Flowers-of-Israel-ver006.jpg
Insect-pollinated flowers use a combination of cues to advertise themselves to insects.

Insect-pollinated flowers use bright colours, patterns, rewards of nectar and pollen, and scent to attract pollinators such as bees. [1] Some also use drugs such as caffeine to encourage bees to return more often. [2] Advertising is influenced by sexual selection: in dioecious plants like sallow, the male flowers are brighter yellow (the colour of their pollen) and have more scent than female flowers. Honey bees are more attracted by the brighter male flowers, but not by their scent. [3]

Many flowers that are adapted for pollination by birds produce copious quantities of nectar and advertise this with their red coloration. Insects see red less well than other colours, and the plant needs to devote its energy to attracting birds that can act as pollinators rather than insects that cannot. In fact, the Canary Island endemic Echium wildpretii has two subspecies, a red-flowering one on Teneriffe which is mainly pollinated by birds, and a pink-flowered one on Las Palmas which is pollinated by insects. [4]

In animals

Wilson's bird-of-paradise advertises to females in the breeding season with brilliant colours, patterns and tail plumes, as well as display behaviour and song. Wilson's Bird of Paradise.jpg
Wilson's bird-of-paradise advertises to females in the breeding season with brilliant colours, patterns and tail plumes, as well as display behaviour and song.

Advertising takes a variety of forms in animals. [5] [6] Breeding adults often display to attract a mate. Breeding males of sexually dimorphic birds, such as peacocks, birds of paradise and bower birds, have elaborate plumage, song, and behaviour. These evolved through sexual selection by females. [6] The males use these features alone or in combination to advertise their presence, and, especially but not only in species with lek mating, to compete with rival males. In a lek, the presence of multiple males advertises and potentially benefits all the males present, so they are both collaborating and competing. [7]

Breeding males may also advertise honestly to warn rival males of their strength, a classic example being the red deer, where the roaring of a rutting stag reliably signals its size. The honest advertisement benefits both sender and receiver, as neither need become involved in a costly fight to assess their relative strength. [8] In the breeding season, frogs congregate at suitable breeding sites and call to advertise their presence, particularly at night. Females can distinguish between the fitness of males based on the characteristics of their voices. [9] [10] Desert toads emerge from their burrows in response to heavy rain. Males emerge first and when one finds a suitable ephemeral pool, its call attracts others and they all congregate there. Males may call in unison in noisy choruses, and breeding is explosive, a mass of males competing for the smaller number of females. [11]

Colour can be used in advertising. Some butterflies have eyespots on their wings. These make no effort at concealment, but may startle a potential predator into trying elsewhere. The western skink has a distinctive blue tail. If the skink cannot escape from a predator by concealment or flight, it can afford to lose its tail in order to escape with its life. Similarly, some species of grasshopper are well-camouflaged when at rest but flash vivid colouration when flying. The grasshopper thus avoids being eaten while the potential predator hunts in vain for the brightly coloured insect it saw. [12]

Skunk, Mephitis mephitis, advertising its powerful defences by raising its tail and displaying its aposematic coloration Skunk about to spray.jpg
Skunk, Mephitis mephitis , advertising its powerful defences by raising its tail and displaying its aposematic coloration

Male crickets chirp to attract females, and in some species, their calls can be heard from great distances. However, a certain parasitic fly has taken advantage of this, the female is attracted to a calling male cricket on which it then deposits its developing larvae. [13] Elaborate song is especially well-developed among birds, and again sexual selection has driven its evolution. Songbirds such as warblers have an extensive repertoire of songs, sometimes with thousands of phrases. The sedge warbler assembles an effectively infinite number of songs by assembling phrases in combination. Laboratory experiments by Clive Catchpole demonstrate that female sedge warblers select males with more varied songs, while field observation indicates that such males attract mates before other males. [6]

Breeding females may advertise oestrus (being "on heat" or "in season", i.e. that they are fertile, ovulating and receptive to breeding) with pheromones (scent), courtship behaviour, and visual signals. [14] Human females have long been thought to conceal their ovulation, but women's behaviour changes around the time of ovulation with increased sexual motivation, and they are more attracted to men at that time; conversely, men are more attracted to the scent of women around the time of ovulation than in the non-ovulating (luteal) phase of the menstrual cycle. [15]

Distasteful animals use warning coloration (aposematism) to prevent attacks from potential predators. [5]

Many animals wish to advertise to those of their own species while being camouflaged to avoid predation. Many deep sea fish do this by way of bioluminescence. Patterns of photophores on their undersides emit light that from below hide their silhouettes and resemble the scintillating lights produced by the ever-moving surface layers of water. At the same time, each species has a distinctive pattern of photophores that enables another member of its species to identify it as a con-specific. [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pheromone</span> Secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species

A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavior of the receiving individuals. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Pheromones are used by many organisms, from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. In addition, some vertebrates, plants and ciliates communicate by using pheromones. The ecological functions and evolution of pheromones are a major topic of research in the field of chemical ecology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coevolution</span> Two or more species influencing each others evolution

In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well as gene-culture coevolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual dimorphism</span> Condition where males and females exhibit different characteristics

Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most animals and some plants. Differences may include secondary sex characteristics, size, weight, color, markings, or behavioral or cognitive traits. Male-male reproductive competition has evolved a diverse array of sexually dimorphic traits. Aggressive utility traits such as "battle" teeth and blunt heads reinforced as battering rams are used as weapons in aggressive interactions between rivals. Passive displays such as ornamental feathering or song-calling have also evolved mainly through sexual selection. These differences may be subtle or exaggerated and may be subjected to sexual selection and natural selection. The opposite of dimorphism is monomorphism, when both biological sexes are phenotypically indistinguishable from each other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mimicry</span> Imitation of another species for selective advantage

In evolutionary biology, mimicry is an evolved resemblance between an organism and another object, often an organism of another species. Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. Often, mimicry functions to protect a species from predators, making it an anti-predator adaptation. Mimicry evolves if a receiver perceives the similarity between a mimic and a model and as a result changes its behaviour in a way that provides a selective advantage to the mimic. The resemblances that evolve in mimicry can be visual, acoustic, chemical, tactile, or electric, or combinations of these sensory modalities. Mimicry may be to the advantage of both organisms that share a resemblance, in which case it is a form of mutualism; or mimicry can be to the detriment of one, making it parasitic or competitive. The evolutionary convergence between groups is driven by the selective action of a signal-receiver or dupe. Birds, for example, use sight to identify palatable insects and butterflies, whilst avoiding the noxious ones. Over time, palatable insects may evolve to resemble noxious ones, making them mimics and the noxious ones models. In the case of mutualism, sometimes both groups are referred to as "co-mimics". It is often thought that models must be more abundant than mimics, but this is not so. Mimicry may involve numerous species; many harmless species such as hoverflies are Batesian mimics of strongly defended species such as wasps, while many such well-defended species form Müllerian mimicry rings, all resembling each other. Mimicry between prey species and their predators often involves three or more species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Territory (animal)</span> Area a wild animal consistently defends

In ethology, territory is the sociographical area that an animal consistently defends against conspecific competition using agonistic behaviors or real physical aggression. Animals that actively defend territories in this way are referred to as being territorial or displaying territorialism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aposematism</span> Honest signalling of an animals powerful defences

Aposematism is the advertising by an animal to potential predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defenses which make the prey difficult to kill and eat, such as toxicity, venom, foul taste or smell, sharp spines, or aggressive nature. These advertising signals may take the form of conspicuous coloration, sounds, odours, or other perceivable characteristics. Aposematic signals are beneficial for both predator and prey, since both avoid potential harm.

A semiochemical, from the Greek σημεῖον (semeion), meaning "signal", is a chemical substance or mixture released by an organism that affects the behaviors of other individuals. Semiochemical communication can be divided into two broad classes: communication between individuals of the same species (intraspecific) or communication between different species (interspecific).

Sexual mimicry occurs when one sex mimics the opposite sex in its behavior, appearance, or chemical signalling.

<i>Hymenopus coronatus</i> Species of praying mantis

Hymenopus coronatus is a mantis from the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. It is known by various common names including walking flower mantis and (pink) orchid mantis. It is one of several species known as flower mantises from their resemblance and behaviour. They are known to grab their prey with blinding speed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Display (zoology)</span> Set of ritualized behaviours in animals

Display behaviour is a set of ritualized behaviours that enable an animal to communicate to other animals about specific stimuli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal coloration</span> General appearance of an animal

Animal colouration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces. Some animals are brightly coloured, while others are hard to see. In some species, such as the peafowl, the male has strong patterns, conspicuous colours and is iridescent, while the female is far less visible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical mimicry</span> Biological mimicry using chemicals

Chemical mimicry is a type of biological mimicry involving the use of chemicals to dupe an operator.

A biological ornament is a characteristic of an animal that appears to serve a decorative function rather than a utilitarian function. Many are secondary sexual characteristics, and others appear on young birds during the period when they are dependent on being fed by their parents. Ornaments are used in displays to attract mates, which may lead to the evolutionary process known as sexual selection. An animal may shake, lengthen, or spread out its ornament in order to get the attention of the opposite sex, which will in turn choose the most attractive one with which to mate. Ornaments are most often observed in males, and choosing an extravagantly ornamented male benefits females as the genes that produce the ornament will be passed on to her offspring, increasing their own reproductive fitness. As Ronald Fisher noted, the male offspring will inherit the ornament while the female offspring will inherit the preference for said ornament, which can lead to a positive feedback loop known as a Fisherian runaway. These structures serve as cues to animal sexual behaviour, that is, they are sensory signals that affect mating responses. Therefore, ornamental traits are often selected by mate choice.

<i>Adaptive Coloration in Animals</i> 1940 textbook on camouflage, mimicry and aposematism by Hugh Cott

Adaptive Coloration in Animals is a 500-page textbook about camouflage, warning coloration and mimicry by the Cambridge zoologist Hugh Cott, first published during the Second World War in 1940; the book sold widely and made him famous.

<i>The Colours of Animals</i> 1890 book by Edward Bagnall Poulton

The Colours of Animals is a zoology book written in 1890 by Sir Edward Bagnall Poulton (1856–1943). It was the first substantial textbook to argue the case for Darwinian selection applying to all aspects of animal coloration. The book also pioneered the concept of frequency-dependent selection and introduced the term "aposematism".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mimicry in plants</span>

In evolutionary biology, mimicry in plants is where a plant organism evolves to resemble another organism physically or chemically, increasing the mimic's Darwinian fitness. Mimicry in plants has been studied far less than mimicry in animals, with fewer documented cases and peer-reviewed studies. However, it may provide protection against herbivory, or may deceptively encourage mutualists, like pollinators, to provide a service without offering a reward in return.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deimatic behaviour</span> Bluffing display of an animal used to startle or scare a predator

Deimatic behaviour or startle display means any pattern of bluffing behaviour in an animal that lacks strong defences, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous eyespots, to scare off or momentarily distract a predator, thus giving the prey animal an opportunity to escape. The term deimatic or dymantic originates from the Greek δειματόω (deimatóo), meaning "to frighten".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection in birds</span>

Sexual selection in birds concerns how birds have evolved a variety of mating behaviors, with the peacock tail being perhaps the most famous example of sexual selection and the Fisherian runaway. Commonly occurring sexual dimorphisms such as size and color differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations. Many types of avian sexual selection have been identified; intersexual selection, also known as female choice; and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual's fitness. Conflicts between an individual fitness and signaling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage coloration and courtship behavior are “honest” traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollination of orchids</span>

The pollination of orchids is a complex chapter in the biology of this family of plants that are distinguished by the complexity of their flowers and by intricate ecological interactions with their pollinator agents. It has captured the attention of numerous scientists over time, including Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. Darwin published in 1862 the first observations of the fundamental role of insects in orchid pollination, in his book The Fertilization of Orchids. Darwin stated that the varied stratagems orchids use to attract their pollinators transcend the imagination of any human being.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UV coloration in flowers</span> Natural phenomenon

UV coloration is a natural phenomenon that leads to unique interactions between organisms that have evolved the ability to perceive these wavelengths of light. It serves as one method to attract pollinators to the flower along with scent, shape, and nectar quality. Flowers are known for their range of visible colors that humans can see with their eyes and observe an array of different shades and patterns. The naked eye cannot see the ultraviolet coloration many flowers employ to bring attention to themselves. By either reflecting or absorbing UV light waves, flowers are able to communicate with pollinators. This allows plants that may require an animal pollinator to stand out from other flowers or distinguish where their flowers are in a muddied background of other plant parts. For the plant, it is important to share and receive pollen so they can reproduce, maintain their ecological role, and guide the evolutionary history of the population.

References

  1. ↑ Iolanda, Filella; Primante, Clara; Llusià, Joan; Martín González, Ana M.; Seco, Roger; Farré-Armengol,Gerard; Rodrigo, Anselm; Bosch, Jordi; Peñuelas, Josep (2013). "Floral advertisement scent in a changing plant-pollinators market". Scientific Reports. 3: 3434. Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E3434F. doi:10.1038/srep03434. PMC   3852139 . PMID   24305624.
  2. ↑ "Plants spike nectar with caffeine and give bees a buzz". New Scientist. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
  3. ↑ Dötterl, Stefan; Glück, Ulrike; Jürgens, Andreas; Woodring, Joseph; Aas, Gregor (2014). "Floral Reward, Advertisement and Attractiveness to Honey Bees in Dioecious Salix caprea". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e93421. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093421 . PMC   3968154 . PMID   24676333.
  4. ↑ Rodríguez-Gironés, Miguel A.; Santamaría, Luis (2004). "Why are so many bird flowers red?". PLOS Biology. 2 (10): e306. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020350. PMC   521733 . PMID   15486585.
  5. 1 2 Cott, Hugh B (1940). Adaptive Coloration in Animals . Methuen. page 191
  6. 1 2 3 Slater, Peter J. B. (1999). "8.5 Advertising displays". Essentials of Animal Behaviour. Cambridge University Press. pp. 178–181. ISBN   978-0-521-62996-6.
  7. ↑ Brudzynski, Stefan M. (8 December 2009). Handbook of Mammalian Vocalization: An Integrative Neuroscience Approach. Academic Press. p. 446. ISBN   978-0-08-092337-6. An advantage of lek mating is that males pool their advertising and courtship signals.
  8. ↑ Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Albon, S. D. (1979). "The Roaring of Red Deer and the Evolution of Honest Advertisement". Behaviour. 69 (3/4): 145–170. doi:10.1163/156853979x00449. JSTOR   4533969.
  9. ↑ Dorcas, Michael E.; Gibbons, Whit (2011). Frogs: The Animal Answer Guide. JHU Press. p. 35. ISBN   978-0-8018-9935-5.
  10. ↑ "Animal behaviour: Truth in advertising". The Economist . 18 June 1998.
  11. ↑ Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural History of Amphibians. Princeton University Press. p. 159. ISBN   978-0-691-03281-8.
  12. ↑ Stebbins, Robert Cyril; Ipsen, D.C.; Gillfillan, Gretchen (2008). Animal Coloration: Activities on the Evolution of Concealment. NSTA Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN   978-1-933531-29-8.
  13. ↑ Cade, W.H. (1975). "Acoustically orienting parasitoids: Fly phonotaxis to cricket song". Science. 190 (4221): 1312–1313. Bibcode:1975Sci...190.1312C. doi:10.1126/science.190.4221.1312. S2CID   85233362.
  14. ↑ Irwin, Mark D.; Stoner, John B.; Cobaugh, Aaron M. (2013). Zookeeping: An Introduction to the Science and Technology. University of Chicago Press. p. 192. ISBN   978-0-226-92532-5.
  15. ↑ Tarin, Juan J.; Gomez-Piquer, Vanessa (2002). "Do women have a hidden heat period?". Human Reproduction. 17 (9): 2243–2248. doi: 10.1093/humrep/17.9.2243 . PMID   12202409.
  16. ↑ Bone, Quentin; Moore, Richard (2008). Biology of Fishes. Garland Science. pp. 328, 334. ISBN   978-0-203-88522-2.
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