Agriculture in Qatar

Last updated
Center-pivot irrigation system at Al Rekayya Farms in central Qatar Irkhaya Farms center-pivot irrigation.jpg
Center-pivot irrigation system at Al Rekayya Farms in central Qatar

Agriculture in Qatar Till quite recently, it was thought that Qatar's environment was not at all favorable for plantation and organic farming due to its harsh temperature during the summer months, desalinated chlorine water, poor annual rainfall and arid soil that all add up to quite the challenge of turning a desert area into a green oasis is inherently limited in scope due to the harsh climate and lack of arable land. [1] In spite of this, small-scale farming, nomadic herding, pearling, and fishing were the predominant means of subsistence in the region until the commencement of oil drilling in 1939. [2]

Contents

Although the relative importance of these activities has declined as a means of livelihood (with commercial pearling disappearing completely), the government has attempted to encourage agriculture and fishing to provide a degree of self-sufficiency in food. [2]

History

Date palms were one of the earliest crops to be cultivated in the peninsula. [3] Beginning in the Bronze Age, the trading of date palms had a significant impact on the Qatari economy. [4] Date palm leaves were also commonly used as a construction material. [5] However, as Qatar's geography and climate was unsuitable for large-scale crop cultivation, the bartering of date palms had a lesser impact on Qatar's revenues than did pearling. As the waters surrounding Qatar contain some of the most abundant pearling beds in the world, this was the main source of income for Qatar's inhabitants until the discovery of oil in the 20th century. Pearl trading was supplemented in some areas by camel breeding. Fishing also played an important role in the economy. [6]

J.G. Lorimer's wrote about the role of agriculture for settled villagers in 1908 in his Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf : [7]

"The principal and almost the exclusive source of livelihood in Qatar is pearl-fishing, supplemented in some places by the breeding of camels. Agriculture hardly exists. The only date palms-- and they are not numerous-- appear to be those in the gardens at Laqta, Markhiyah, Mushairib, Na'aijah, Sakkak, Sakhamah and Wakrah; and it is not clear that any vegetable gardens exist except at some of the same places, A few semi-wild clumps of dates are found on the west coast near Dohat-as-Salwa. Besides camels the settled villagers have a few horses and cattle, which they keep in their own possession, and some sheep and goats which are tended for them by the Bedouins. They also fish along the coast of the district.

These remarks are not intended to apply to the Bedouins of Qatar, who are pastoral in their habits, like the rest of their race elsewhere, and own livestock in the proportions usual among Arab nomads."

A camel farm in southern Qatar Camels grazing at a livestock farm in southern Qatar.jpg
A camel farm in southern Qatar
Inventory of agricultural resources in 1908 [8]
CityFishing boatsCamelsHorses
Khor Hassan 5200
Abu Dhalouf 10300
Ar Ru'ays 10204
Fuwayrit 1210020
Al Thakhira 5100
Al Khor 301000
Simaisma 10706
Al Daayen 106010
Lusail 37020
Doha 90800150
Al Wakrah 3015040

After Qatar began reaping significant monetary returns from oil drilling in the 1950s to 1960s, the number of Qataris employed in agriculture witnessed a decline, as the country now had the means to import large amounts of food. [9]

When food prices started rising in the early 1970s, Qatar realized the importance of attaining food self-sufficiency. At the beginning of 1974, the emirate requested the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development to send researchers to study it and corroborate their results with those of an earlier UN report of the country's terrestrial and marine resources. After nearly half a year of study starting in July 1974, the research mission submitted its report to the government in November 1974. In September of that year, Qatar created a committee that would examine ways to help boost the country's agricultural development. A report released by Qatar's ministries, also in 1974, disclosed that agriculture only accounted for 0.65% of all contributions to Qatar's GDP. [9]

Cultivation and livestock

Goats grazing on the arid desert terrain GoatGrazingInQatar.jpg
Goats grazing on the arid desert terrain
Date palm plantation in Al Mashabiya, southern Qatar Date palm plantation in southern Qatar.jpg
Date palm plantation in Al Mashabiya, southern Qatar

Only 2.5% (28,000 ha.) of the land in Qatar is arable or suitable for use as pastureland. This is a major increase from the two prior decades. In 1996, 8,312 ha. of land was arable, while in 1980 only 2,256 ha. was arable. [3]

Farming currently plays only a minor role in the economy. Of the 8,312 ha. of arable land in 1994, 2,345 ha. were used to cultivate permanent crops, while 5,987 ha. were used to grow annual crops. Date palms were the most abundant permanent crop. [3] Root vegetables such as carrots, potatoes, onions and fodder beets are also some of the most important crops produced by Qatari farms. [10]

Between 1960 and 1970 agriculture grew. [2] The number of farms, for example, increased fourfold to 411. [2] Qataris who own agricultural land or properties generally hold government jobs and hire Pakistanis, or non-Qatari Arabs to manage their farms. [2] The government operates one experimental farm. [2] Of land under cultivation in 1990, about 48 percent was used for vegetables (23,000 tons produced), 33 percent for fruit and date production (8,000 tons), 11 percent for fodder (70,000 tons), and 8 percent for grains (3,000 tons). [2] In 1990 the country had approximately 128,000 head of sheep, 78,000 goats, 24,000 camels, 10,000 cattle, and 1,000 horses. [2] There are also dairy farms and about 2,000 chickens for poultry. [2] All but 20 percent of local demand for eggs is met domestically. [2] Despite the encouragement of agriculture and fishing, these two elements of the economy together produced only about 1 percent of the gross domestic product in 1989. [2]

In July 2017, following the closure of Qatar's only land border with Saudi Arabia, the country announced plans to airlift 4,000 cows in a bid to meet around one-third of its dairy demand. Local company Baladna will be responsible for the dairy production. [11] Later, Baladna announced that it will be importing an additional 10,000 cows so that they can meet Qatar's dairy requirements in full by 2018. [12] Domestic production of meats, dairy products, and crops increased by 400% from June 2017, the onset of Qatar's diplomatic spat, to March 2018, according to the Ministry of Municipality and Environment. Nearly all (98%) the demand for poultry is being met. [13]

By 2019, Qatar's vegetable output increased by 20% since mid-2017 to 66,000 tonnes per year. It is expected to further increase by 20,000-40,000 tonnes by 2020. Prior to the embargo, Qatar produced only 20% and 10% of its dairy and poultry needs respectively. By 2019, the country became self-sufficient. [14]

Date syrup

Boxed dates Boxed Dates.jpg
Boxed dates

The manufacturing of date syrup is one of the oldest industries in Qatar, dating back to at least the 17th century. Qatar's natural landscape can support only a few types of agriculture, and date palms are among them. The syrup was obtained by using a traditional date press called madabis or madbasa. Due to its high-calorie content and nutrient density, it was a cheap and quick source of energy for the locals, particularly pearl divers. [15]

The construction of madabis employed traditional techniques reflective of the era. Utilizing locally available materials such as stones, limestone, sandstone, and coral, craftsmen built these rectangular or square rooms with meticulous attention to detail. The outer walls, made of irregular stones, provided structural integrity, while inner walls crafted from beachrocks (faroush) added insulation. Traditional roofing methods, including danshal (mangrove) beams and palm fronds, ensured stability and protection from the elements. With a short harvesting season for dates, the production of date syrup allowed for their preservation and prolonged consumption. This syrup served both civil and commercial purposes, being traded as a commodity and providing sustenance during periods of tribal conflicts and unrest. While modernization and lifestyle changes initially led to a decline in date syrup consumption, recent trends toward health-conscious alternatives have sparked renewed interest in this traditional sweetener. [16]

Soils

Qatar's soils vary in soil texture, ranging from sandy loam to heavy calcareous clay. The majority of cultivation that occurs is on clay loam soil. However, there are numerous problems with this soil, including high salinity levels, low amounts of nutrients, and a bad water infiltration rate. [9] Most of the soils in Qatar are orthents, meaning they lack horizon development and are very shallow. [17]

Limitations

Farmland in Ath Thaqab, northern Qatar Farms in Al Thaqab.jpg
Farmland in Ath Thaqab, northern Qatar

Severe conditions, such as extremely high temperatures and lack of water and fertile soil, hinder increased agricultural production. [2] Orthents, the predominant soil type in the peninsula, accounting for approximately 1,020,000 ha., are unfavorable for crop cultivation because of their extreme shallowness. [17] The limited groundwater that permits agriculture in some areas is being depleted so rapidly that saltwater is encroaching and making the soil inhospitable to all but the most salt-resistant crops. [2] The northern section of Qatar comprises the most significant source of fresh groundwater in the country, mainly due to the more advantageous hydro-geological conditions than those that exist in the southern section of the country. [18] The rate of groundwater extraction in 1966 was 20 million m3/year. This increased to 120 million m3/year by 2000. Studies have approximated that aquifer storage will be completely exhausted by 2025. [18]

Pearling

Pearling was the main source of revenue for Qatar until the discovery of oil in 1939. [19] Approximately 85 pearl beds exist in Qatar's territorial waters. [20] Pearling is an ancient practice in the Persian Gulf, though it is not known exactly when Arabs began diving for pearls. It has been suggested that the profession dates back to the Dilmun civilization in Bahrain 5,000 years ago, which the inhabitants of Qatar came into contact with at the time. [21] Historically, the season for pearl harvest was divided into 3 periods. Hansiyah lasted for 40 days and commenced in mid-April. Ghaus Al Kebir, the primary pearl diving season, took place from May to 10 September. Lastly, Ruddah occurred from late September to early October. [22] Sambuk, a type of dhow, was traditionally used for pearling trips. From the 18th to 20th centuries, the majority of pearls were exported to Mumbai where they would be classified and sent to European markets. The remaining yield would be sent to markets in Baghdad. [23] The importance of the pearl in Qatar is exemplified by a quote of Mohammed bin Thani, ruler of Qatar in the late 1800s, who in 1877 was quoted as saying "We are all from the highest to the lowest slaves of one master, Pearl." [24]

The captain of a pearling craft is called noukhadha, and is responsible for the most important tasks of a pearling trip such as managing interpersonal conflicts between the divers (al-fawwas) and the storage of pearls in the pearling vessel, which is known as al-hairat. The al-muqaddim is responsible for all ship operations while the al-sakuni is the driver of the ship. Slave labor was occasionally used by pearling crews. [21]

Pearl diving in the Persian Gulf Arab pearl divers in the Persian Gulf.jpg
Pearl diving in the Persian Gulf
Inventory of pearling ships and their crews in 1908 [22]
CityNumber of boatsNumber of men
Khor Hassan 20240
Abu Dhalouf 20200
Ar Ru'ays 18270
Fuwayrit 35420
Al Thakhira 15180
Al Khor 801200
Simaisma 50600
Al Daayen 70840
Lusail 990
Doha 3506300
Al Wakrah 1502550

Zubarah, a settlement on the northwest coast of Qatar, is one of the best preserved and most extensive pearling settlements in the region. [25] Reaching its climax in the 18th century, it was primarily an emporium and pearling settlement that capitalized on its proximity to pearl beds, possession of a large harbor and its central position on the Persian Gulf routes. [26] [27] After the introduction of the cultured pearl and the Great Depression in the 20th century, pearling ceased to be a viable option for many Qataris. [19]

Conditions of pearlers

Divers were often slaves or victims of debt bondage. However, pearl traders in Qatar were historically less reliant on forced labor than in neighboring countries. In Paul W. Harrison's 1924 book The Arab at Home, he compares the living conditions between pearl divers in Bahrain and Qatar, stating: [28]

"The fundamental difficulty is in the divers themselves. The majority of the divers of Bahrein are Persians, or belong to that semi-Persian community known as the “Baharina.” They are cheated and defrauded by their employers to a degree almost beyond belief. Their economic condition is pitiable. Not so the comparatively small number of divers who come in from the desert. The Bedouins who come and dive are never exploited. A captain who attempted to cheat them would lose his head and he knows it. Therefore these Bedouins, who avoid debt as they would the plague, receive a much better reward for their work than the others. These wild men bow to no authority except that of Allah in Heaven, and are not easy victims. They usually club together and dive in boats by themselves. They keep out of debt, and so have no limitations to their independence. I asked one of them once in a jocose way whether he was sure that the captain was honest in the reports that were submitted as to the prices secured for pearls and the season’s proceeds. “Ah,” said the diver with the broadest sort of an engaging smile. “What is that you say? Does the captain lie about the price of the pearls he sells for us? No, indeed, he does not lie. He tells the truth. If he should try to cheat us, ha-a.’’ Here the smile extended till it took in his whole face, and he drew the edge of his hand across his own neck in a gesture the meaning of which could not be misunderstood.

The most conspicuous example, however, of divers who are out of debt and therefore out of bondage, is to be found in Katar. Here is a small diving community where practically all of the men are out of debt, and the atmosphere of freedom and equality, good fellowship and comfort is a refreshing contrast to the conditions in Bahrein. The men show real independence and self-respect. These divers can change their employers if the treatment they receive is not satisfactory. They can move to another city to live. In a word, they are free men. Yet the system under which they work is no different from that obtaining in Bahrein. It is the divers who are different. They are Bedouins or descended from Bedouins. They keep out of debt and as a result the system works very well."

Fishing

The Qatar National Fishing Company was incorporated in 1966 to fish for shrimp in territorial waters and to process catches in a refrigerated factory. [2] Japan is a large market for Doha's commercial fish. [2] The total catch of fish and other aquatic animals for 1989 was 4,374 tons. [2]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Qatar</span>

The history of Qatar spans from its first duration of human occupation to its formation as a modern state. Human occupation of Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago, and Stone Age encampments and tools have been unearthed in the Arabian Peninsula. Mesopotamia was the first civilization to have a presence in the area during the Neolithic period, evidenced by the discovery of potsherds originating from the Ubaid period near coastal encampments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pearl hunting</span> Collecting pearls from wild molluscs

Pearl hunting, also known as pearling, is the activity of recovering or attempting to recover pearls from wild molluscs, usually oysters or mussels, in the sea or freshwater. Pearl hunting was prevalent in the Persian Gulf region and Japan for thousands of years. On the northern and north-western coast of Western Australia pearl diving began in the 1850s, and started in the Torres Strait Islands in the 1860s, where the term also covers diving for nacre or mother of pearl found in what were known as pearl shells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zubarah</span> Ruined town in Al Shamal, Qatar

Zubarah, also referred to as Al Zubarah or Az Zubarah, is a ruined, ancient town located on the northwestern coast of the Qatar peninsula in the Al Shamal municipality, about 65 miles from the capital Doha. It was founded by Shaikh Muhammed bin Khalifa, the founder father of Al Khalifa royal family of Bahrain, the main and principal Utub tribe in the first half of the eighteenth century. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al Wakrah</span> City in Al Wakrah Municipality, Qatar

Al Wakrah is the capital city of the Al Wakrah Municipality in Qatar. Al Wakrah's eastern edge touches the shores of the Persian Gulf and Qatar's capital Doha is situated to the city's immediate north. Governed by Sheikh Abdulrahman bin Jassim Al Thani, it was originally a small fishing and pearling village. Over the years, it evolved into a small city with a population of more than 80,000 and is currently considered the second most populous city in Qatar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emblem of Qatar</span> National coat of arms of Qatar

The national emblem of Qatar is one of the official symbols of the state of Qatar. The emblem was initially adopted six years after the termination of the British protectorate, with the gained independence as a country under Sheikh Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani, and was designed under the reign the Emir of Qatar Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani in 1976.

Al Jalahma is an Arab clan, based primarily in the Arab States of the Persian Gulf. They are derived from the `Anizzah tribe of Northern Central Arabia. They were one of the four Utub clans who founded the modern state of Kuwait in 1716, along with Al Bin Ali, Al Sabah and Al Khalifa.

Al Bin Ali is a Sunni Arab sub-tribal confederation based in the Arab states, especially in Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, UAE, and the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khawr al Udayd</span> Place in Al Wakrah Municipality, Qatar

Khawr al Udayd, is a settlement and inlet of the Persian Gulf located in Al Wakrah Municipality in southeast Qatar, on the border with Saudi Arabia. It is known to local English speakers as the "Inland Sea". In the past it used to accommodate a small town and served as the center of a long-running territorial dispute between Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani and Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan. At the present, it is a major tourist destination for Qatar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ath Thaqab</span> Abandoned village in Al Shamal, Qatar

Ath Thaqab is an abandoned village in Qatar, located in the municipality of Ash Shamal, approximately 110 km away from the capital Doha. It is close to the settlements of Al Ruwaydah and Al Khuwayr, the latter of which is only 3 miles away. Thaqab Fort is located in the vicinity of the settlement.

The Bani Utbah is an Arab tribal confederation in the Arabian Peninsula. The confederation is thought to have been formed when a group of clans from Najd migrated to Eastern Arabia in the late 17th century and early 18th century. Most of the Utub clans and families, such as the Al-Sabah and Al-Khalifa, trace their lineage back to Anizah tribe, with the exception of some, such as the Al Bin Ali, whose lineage goes back to the Banu Sulaym tribe. The Al Bin Ali along with the current ruling families of Bahrain and Kuwait were the rulers of the federation. The name of the confederation is found in the form Attoobee or Uttoobee in English sources up to the late 19th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al Khor (city)</span> City in Al Khor Municipality, Qatar

Al Khor is a coastal city in northeast Qatar, located 50 kilometres (31 mi) north of the capital Doha. Considered one of Qatar's largest cities, it is the capital city of the municipality of Al Khor and Al Thakhira. Dating back to the 18th century, it is one of Qatar's oldest settlements. The name of the city, meaning creek in Arabic, emerged because the original settlement was built on a creek. Until the mid-1900s, it was known as Khor Al Shaqiq.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture of Qatar</span> Overview of the culture of Qatar

The culture of Qatar is strongly influenced by traditional Bedouin culture, with less acute influence deriving from India, East Africa, and elsewhere in the Persian Gulf. The peninsula's harsh climate has historically shaped the lifestyle of its inhabitants, driving a reliance on the sea for sustenance and fostering a distinct emphasis on maritime activities within local culture. Arts and literature themes are often related to sea-based activities. Qatari folklore and music best enshrine the state's marine tradition, with pearling trips serving as the main inspiration for music and traditional Qatari myths like Mai and Ghilân being centered around the sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Simaisma</span> Town in Al Khor, Qatar

Simaisma is a small seaside town located on the eastern coast of Qatar 30 km north of the capital Doha. The town is characterized by old houses and mosques that are relics from the days before the discovery of oil and natural gas in Qatar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qatari–Bahraini War</span>

The Qatari-Bahraini War, also known as the Qatari War of Independence, was an armed conflict that took place in 1867 and 1868 in the Persian Gulf. The conflict pitted Bahrain and Abu Dhabi against Qatar. The conflict was the most flagrant violation of the 1835 maritime truce, requiring British intervention. The two emirates agreed to a truce, mediated by the United Kingdom, which led to Britain recognizing the Al-Thani family of Qatar as the semi-independent ruler of Qatar. The conflict resulted in wide-scale destruction in both emirates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Bahrain (1783–1971)</span>

The History of Bahrain (1783–1971) covers the history of Bahrain since the invasion of Al Khalifa until the independence from the British Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qatari cuisine</span> Culinary traditions of Qatar

Qatari cuisine is made up of traditional Arab cuisine. Machbūs, a meal consisting of rice, meat, and vegetables, is the national dish in Qatar, typically made with either lamb or chicken and slow-cooked to give it a depth of flavour. Seafood and dates are staple food items in the country. Many of these dishes are also used in other countries in the region because they share many commonalities. In other parts of the region, some of the dishes have different names or use slightly different ingredients. One proponent of the importance of Qatar's culinary heritage is chef Noor Al Mazroei, who adapts traditional recipes to include vegan and gluten-free alternatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baladna (company)</span> Qatari agricultural company

Baladna is a Qatari agricultural company that raises livestock and produces dairy products. It is Qatar's largest locally-owned food and dairy producer, supplying over 95% of the country's fresh dairy products.

The Na'im is an Arab tribe in the United Arab Emirates. The tribe is also present in other gulf countries.

The AlManasir is a tribe of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Nomadic, warlike and fiercely independent, they roamed between Buraimi and Qatar, the Persian Gulf coast to Liwa and also settled in the Northern emirates. They subsisted through date farming, pearling and moving goods with their camel trains, as well as camel breeding.

Al Huwaila is an abandoned town in Qatar located in the municipality of Al Shamal. Prior to the 18th century, and as perhaps as early as the 16th century, it served as Qatar's main town before its population migrated elsewhere.

References

  1. ↑ McCoy, Lisa (2014). Qatar (Major Muslim Nations). Mason Crest. pp. 69–71. ISBN   9781633559851.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Toth, Anthony (1994). "Qatar: Agriculture and Fishing". In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.). Persian Gulf states: country studies (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 177–178. ISBN   0-8444-0793-3. OCLC   29548413. PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  3. 1 2 3 "Geography and population". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  4. ↑ Althani, Mohamed (2013). Jassim the Leader: Founder of Qatar. Profile Books. p. 15. ISBN   978-1781250709.
  5. ↑ John Lockerbie. "Old buildings". catnaps.org. Archived from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
  6. ↑ "'Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol. II. Geographical and Statistical. J G Lorimer. 1908' [1532] (1647/2084)". Qatar Digital Library. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
  7. ↑ "'Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol. II. Geographical and Statistical. J G Lorimer. 1908' [1526] (1641/2084)". Qatar Digital Library. Retrieved 6 July 2018.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  8. ↑ "'Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol. II. Geographical and Statistical. J G Lorimer. 1908' [1533] (1648/2084)". Qatar Digital Library. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
  9. 1 2 3 M. F. Hassan (October 1978). "Agricultural Development in a Petroleum-Based Economy: Qatar". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 27 (1): 145–167. doi:10.1086/451078. JSTOR   1153317. S2CID   153502951.
  10. ↑ "Agriculture and Fisheries". Qatar e-Government. Retrieved 18 July 2018.[ permanent dead link ]
  11. ↑ Zahraa Alkhalisi and Tuqa Khalid (12 July 2017). "Qatar airlifts in cows after Arab embargo cuts milk supplies". CNN Money. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  12. ↑ Irfan Bukhari (7 August 2017). "Baladna Farm plans to meet Qatar's dairy needs by April 2018". The Peninsula. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  13. ↑ "Self-sufficiency in some agricultural sectors by 2022". The Peninsula. 21 March 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
  14. ↑ "With cows, chickens and greenhouses, Qatar takes on regional boycott". Reuters. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  15. ↑ "Traditional Qatari Culture" (PDF). Qatar Tourism. p. 11. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
  16. ↑ Al Maashani, Musllam; Menon, Lakshmi Venugopal (May 2023). "Traditional Date Presses (madabis) in Qatar" (PDF). Gulf Studies Centre of Qatar University . Retrieved 28 April 2024.
  17. 1 2 Al-Kubaisi, Mohammed Ali M. (1984). Industrial development in Qatar: a geographical assessment (PDF). Durham E-Theses, Durham University. p. 15.
  18. 1 2 Llamas, M. Ramon; Custodio, E. (2002). Intensive Use of Groundwater: Challenges and Opportunities. CRC Press. p. 369. ISBN   978-9058093905.
  19. 1 2 "Pearl Diving in Qatar". USA Today. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  20. ↑ Al-Kubaisi, Mohammed Ali M. (1984). Industrial development in Qatar: a geographical assessment (PDF). Durham E-Theses, Durham University. p. 17.
  21. 1 2 Al-Duwayk, Muhammad Talib (1991). Al-ughniya al-sha biyya f Qatar. 2 vols (in Arabic). Vol. 2. Doha: Ministry of Information and Culture. p. 15–17.
  22. 1 2 Casey, Paula; Vine, Peter (1991). The heritage of Qatar (print ed.). Immel Publishing. p.  50. ISBN   978-0907151500.
  23. ↑ Casey & Vine, p. 52
  24. ↑ Hobbs, Mark (18 December 2014). "Divers are a Pearl's Best Friend: Pearl Diving in the Gulf 1840s–1930s". Qatar Digital Library. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
  25. ↑ "Al Zubarah Archaeological Site". UNESCO. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
  26. ↑ Bowen R. Le B. 1951: The Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf. In The Middle East Journal 5/2: 161–180.
  27. ↑ "The Pearl Emporium of Al Zubarah". Saudi Aramco World. December 2013. Archived from the original on 2015-02-15. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  28. ↑ Harrison, Paul Wilberforce (1924). The Arab at home. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. pp. 92–93.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.