Allotropes of phosphorus

Last updated
White phosphorus (left), red phosphorus (center left and center right), and violet phosphorus (right) PhosphComby.jpg
White phosphorus (left), red phosphorus (center left and center right), and violet phosphorus (right)
White phosphorus and resulting allotropes PhosphorusAllotropes.svg
White phosphorus and resulting allotropes

Elemental phosphorus can exist in several allotropes, the most common of which are white and red solids. Solid violet and black allotropes are also known. Gaseous phosphorus exists as diphosphorus and atomic phosphorus.

Contents

White phosphorus

White phosphorus
Weisser Phosphor.JPG
White phosphorus sample with a chunk removed from the corner to expose un-oxidized material
Tetraphosphorus-liquid-2D-dimensions.png
Tetraphosphorus molecule
Names
IUPAC names
White phosphorus
Tetraphosphorus
Systematic IUPAC name
1,2,3,4-Tetraphosphatricyclo[1.1.0.02,4]butane
Other names
  • Molecular phosphorus
  • Yellow phosphorus
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChemSpider
PubChem CID
UN number 1381
  • InChI=1S/P4/c1-2-3(1)4(1)2
    Key: OBSZRRSYVTXPNB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • P12P3P1P23
Properties
P4
Molar mass 123.895 g·mol−1
Density 1.82 g/cm3
Melting point 44.1 °C; 111.4 °F; 317.3 K
Boiling point 280 °C; 536 °F; 553 K
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704.svgHealth 4: Very short exposure could cause death or major residual injury. E.g. VX gasFlammability 4: Will rapidly or completely vaporize at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, or is readily dispersed in air and will burn readily. Flash point below 23 °C (73 °F). E.g. propaneInstability 2: Undergoes violent chemical change at elevated temperatures and pressures, reacts violently with water, or may form explosive mixtures with water. E.g. white phosphorusSpecial hazards (white): no code
4
4
2
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
White phosphorus crystal structure White phosphorus.png
White phosphorus crystal structure

White phosphorus, yellow phosphorus or simply tetraphosphorus (P4) exists as molecules of four phosphorus atoms in a tetrahedral structure, joined by six phosphorus—phosphorus single bonds. The tetrahedral arrangement results in ring strain and instability. [1] Although both are called "white phosphorus", in fact two different crystal allotropes are known, interchanging reversibly at 195.2 K. [2] The element's standard state is the body-centered cubic α form, which is actually metastable under standard conditions. [1] The β form is believed to have a hexagonal crystal structure. [2]

Molten and gaseous white phosphorus also retains the tetrahedral molecules, until 800 °C (1,500 °F; 1,100 K) when it starts decomposing to P
2 molecules. [3] The P
4 molecule in the gas phase has a P-P bond length of rg = 2.1994(3) Å as was determined by gas electron diffraction. [4] The β form of white phosphorus contains three slightly different P
4 molecules, i.e. 18 different P-P bond lengths — between 2.1768(5) and 2.1920(5) Å. The average P-P bond length is 2.183(5) Å. [3]

White phosphorus is a translucent waxy solid that quickly yellows in light, and impure white phosphorus is for this reason called yellow phosphorus. It glows greenish in the dark (when exposed to oxygen) and is highly flammable and pyrophoric (self-igniting) upon contact with air. It is toxic, causing severe liver damage on ingestion and phossy jaw from chronic ingestion or inhalation. The odour of combustion of this form has a characteristic garlic smell, and samples are commonly coated with white "diphosphorus pentoxide", which consists of P4O10 tetrahedral with oxygen inserted between the phosphorus atoms and at their vertices. White phosphorus is only slightly soluble in water and can be stored under water. Indeed, white phosphorus is safe from self-igniting when it is submerged in water; due to this, unreacted white phosphorus can prove hazardous to beachcombers who may collect washed-up samples while unaware of their true nature. [5] [6] P4 is soluble in benzene, oils, carbon disulfide, and disulfur dichloride.

Production and applications

The white allotrope can be produced using several methods. In the industrial process, phosphate rock is heated in an electric or fuel-fired furnace in the presence of carbon and silica. [7] Elemental phosphorus is then liberated as a vapour and can be collected under phosphoric acid. An idealized equation for this carbothermal reaction is shown for calcium phosphate (although phosphate rock contains substantial amounts of fluoroapatite):

2 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 SiO2 + 10 C → 6 CaSiO3 + 10 CO + P4

White phosphorus has an appreciable vapour pressure at ordinary temperatures. The vapour density indicates that the vapour is composed of P4 molecules up to about 800 °C. Above that temperature, dissociation into P2 molecules occurs.

In base, white phosphorus spontaneously disproportionates to phosphine and various phosphorus oxyacids. [8]

It ignites spontaneously in air at about 50 °C (122 °F), and at much lower temperatures if finely divided (due to melting-point depression). Phosphorus reacts with oxygen, usually forming two oxides depending on the amount of available oxygen: P4O6 (phosphorus trioxide) when reacted with a limited supply of oxygen, and P4O10 when reacted with excess oxygen. On rare occasions, P4O7, P4O8, and P4O9 are also formed, but in small amounts. This combustion gives phosphorus(V) oxide:

P4 + 5 O2 → P4O10

Because of this property, white phosphorus is used as a weapon.

Phosphorus pentachloride is prepared by the reaction of white phosphorus with excess of dry chlorine. [9]

P4 + 10Cl2 → 4PCl5

It can also be prepared by the action of sulfuryl chloride on white phosphorus. [9]

P4 + 10SO2Cl2 → 4PCl5 + 10SO2

Non-existence of cubic-P8

Although white phosphorus converts to the thermodynamically more stable red allotrope, the formation of the cubic-P8 molecule is not observed in the condensed phase. Analogs of this hypothetical molecule have been prepared from phosphaalkynes. [10] White phosphorus in the gaseous state and as waxy solid consists of reactive P4 molecules.

Red phosphorus

Red phosphorus Phosphor rot.jpg
Red phosphorus
Red phosphorus structure Red phosphorus.png
Red phosphorus structure

Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white phosphorus to 300 °C (570 °F) in the absence of air or by exposing white phosphorus to sunlight. Red phosphorus exists as an amorphous network. Upon further heating, the amorphous red phosphorus crystallizes. Bulk red phosphorus does not ignite in air at temperatures below 240 °C (460 °F), whereas pieces of white phosphorus ignite at about 30 °C (86 °F).

Under standard conditions it is more stable than white phosphorus, but less stable than the thermodynamically stable black phosphorus. The standard enthalpy of formation of red phosphorus is −17.6 kJ/mol. [1] Red phosphorus is kinetically most stable.

It was first presented by Anton von Schrötter before the Vienna Academy of Sciences on December 9, 1847, although others had doubtlessly had this substance in their hands before, such as Berzelius. [11]

Applications

Red phosphorus can be used as a very effective flame retardant, especially in thermoplastics (e.g. polyamide) and thermosets (e.g. epoxy resins or polyurethanes). The flame retarding effect is based on the formation of polyphosphoric acid. Together with the organic polymer material, these acids create a char that prevents the propagation of the flames. The safety risks associated with phosphine generation and friction sensitivity of red phosphorus can be effectively minimized by stabilization and micro-encapsulation. For easier handling, red phosphorus is often used in form of dispersions or masterbatches in various carrier systems. However, for electronic/electrical systems, red phosphorus flame retardant has been effectively banned by major OEMs due to its tendency to induce premature failures. [12] One persistent problem is that red phosphorus in epoxy molding compounds induces elevated leakage current in semiconductor devices. [13] Another problem was acceleration of hydrolysis reactions in PBT insulating material. [14]

Red phosphorus can also be used in the illicit production of methamphetamine and Krokodil.

Red phosphorus can be used as an elemental photocatalyst for hydrogen formation from the water. [15] They display a steady hydrogen evolution rates of 633 μmol/(h⋅g) by the formation of small-sized fibrous phosphorus. [16]

Violet or Hittorf's phosphorus

Violet phosphorus (right) by a sample of red phosphorus (left) Phosphor-rot-violett.jpg
Violet phosphorus (right) by a sample of red phosphorus (left)
Violet phosphorus structure Violetter Phosphor.svg
Violet phosphorus structure
Hitorff's phosphorus structure Hittorf's violet phosphorus.png
Hitorff's phosphorus structure

Monoclinic phosphorus, or violet phosphorus, is also known as Hittorf's metallic phosphorus. [17] [18] In 1865, Johann Wilhelm Hittorf heated red phosphorus in a sealed tube at 530 °C. The upper part of the tube was kept at 444 °C. Brilliant opaque monoclinic, or rhombohedral, crystals sublimed as a result. Violet phosphorus can also be prepared by dissolving white phosphorus in molten lead in a sealed tube at 500 °C for 18 hours. Upon slow cooling, Hittorf's allotrope crystallises out. The crystals can be revealed by dissolving the lead in dilute nitric acid followed by boiling in concentrated hydrochloric acid. [19] In addition, a fibrous form exists with similar phosphorus cages. The lattice structure of violet phosphorus was presented by Thurn and Krebs in 1969. [20] Imaginary frequencies, indicating the irrationalities or instabilities of the structure, were obtained for the reported violet structure from 1969. [21] The single crystal of violet phosphorus was also produced. The lattice structure of violet phosphorus has been obtained by single-crystal x-ray diffraction to be monoclinic with space group of P2/n (13) (a = 9.210, b = 9.128, c = 21.893 Å, β = 97.776°, CSD-1935087). The optical band gap of the violet phosphorus was measured by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy to be around 1.7 eV. The thermal decomposition temperature was 52 °C higher than its black phosphorus counterpart. The violet phosphorene was easily obtained from both mechanical and solution exfoliation.

Reactions of violet phosphorus

Violet phosphorus does not ignite in air until heated to 300 °C and is insoluble in all solvents. It is not attacked by alkali and only slowly reacts with halogens. It can be oxidised by nitric acid to phosphoric acid.

If it is heated in an atmosphere of inert gas, for example nitrogen or carbon dioxide, it sublimes and the vapour condenses as white phosphorus. If it is heated in a vacuum and the vapour condensed rapidly, violet phosphorus is obtained. It would appear that violet phosphorus is a polymer of high relative molecular mass, which on heating breaks down into P2 molecules. On cooling, these would normally dimerize to give P4 molecules (i.e. white phosphorus) but, in a vacuum, they link up again to form the polymeric violet allotrope.

Black phosphorus

Black phosphorus ampoule Black Phosphorus Ampoule.jpg
Black phosphorus ampoule
Black phosphorus Black phosphorus.png
Black phosphorus
Black phosphorus structure Schwarzer Phosphor.svg
Black phosphorus structure

Black phosphorus is the thermodynamically stable form of phosphorus at room temperature and pressure, with a heat of formation of −39.3 kJ/mol (relative to white phosphorus which is defined as the standard state). [1] It was first synthesized by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (12,000 atmospheres) in 1914. As a 2D material, in appearance, properties, and structure, black phosphorus is very much like graphite with both being black and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and having puckered sheets of linked atoms. [22]

Black phosphorus has an orthorhombic pleated honeycomb structure and is the least reactive allotrope, a result of its lattice of interlinked six-membered rings where each atom is bonded to three other atoms. [23] [24] In this structure, each phosphorus atom has five outer shell electrons. [25] Black and red phosphorus can also take a cubic crystal lattice structure. [26] The first high-pressure synthesis of black phosphorus crystals was made by the Nobel prize winner Percy Williams Bridgman in 1914. [27] Metal salts catalyze the synthesis of black phosphorus. [28]

Black phosphorus based sensors exhibit several superior qualities over traditional materials used in piezoelectric or resistive sensors. Characterized by its unique puckered honeycomb lattice structure, black phosphorus provides exceptional carrier mobility. This property ensures its high sensitivity and mechanical resilience, making it an intriguing candidate for sensor technology. [29] [30]

Phosphorene

The similarities to graphite also include the possibility of scotch-tape delamination (exfoliation), resulting in phosphorene, a graphene-like 2D material with excellent charge transport properties, thermal transport properties and optical properties. Distinguishing features of scientific interest include a thickness dependent band-gap, which is not found in graphene. [31] This, combined with a high on/off ratio of ~105 makes phosphorene a promising candidate for field-effect transistors (FETs). [32] The tunable bandgap also suggests promising applications in mid-infrared photodetectors and LEDs. [33] [34] Exfoliated black phosphorus sublimes at 400 °C in vacuum. [35] It gradually oxidizes when exposed to water in the presence of oxygen, which is a concern when contemplating it as a material for the manufacture of transistors, for example. [36] [37] Exfoliated black phosphorus is an emerging anode material in the battery community, showing high stability and lithium storage. [38]

Ring-shaped phosphorus

Ring-shaped phosphorus was theoretically predicted in 2007. [39] The ring-shaped phosphorus was self-assembled inside evacuated multi-walled carbon nanotubes with inner diameters of 5–8 nm using a vapor encapsulation method. A ring with a diameter of 5.30 nm, consisting of 23 P8 and 23 P2 units with a total of 230 P atoms, was observed inside a multi-walled carbon nanotube with an inner diameter of 5.90 nm in atomic scale. The distance between neighboring rings is 6.4 Å. [40]

The P6 ring shaped molecule is not stable in isolation.

Blue phosphorus

Single-layer blue phosphorus was first produced in 2016 by the method of molecular beam epitaxy from black phosphorus as precursor. [41]

Diphosphorus

Structure of diphosphorus Diphosphorus-3D-vdW.png
Structure of diphosphorus
Diphosphorus molecule Diphosphorus-2D-dimensions.png
Diphosphorus molecule

The diphosphorus allotrope (P2) can normally be obtained only under extreme conditions (for example, from P4 at 1100 kelvin). In 2006, the diatomic molecule was generated in homogeneous solution under normal conditions with the use of transition metal complexes (for example, tungsten and niobium). [42]

Diphosphorus is the gaseous form of phosphorus, and the thermodynamically stable form between 1200 °C and 2000 °C. The dissociation of tetraphosphorus (P4) begins at lower temperature: the percentage of P2 at 800 °C is ≈ 1%. At temperatures above about 2000 °C, the diphosphorus molecule begins to dissociate into atomic phosphorus.

Phosphorus nanorods

P12 nanorod polymers were isolated from CuI-P complexes using low temperature treatment. [43]

Red/brown phosphorus was shown to be stable in air for several weeks and have properties distinct from those of red phosphorus. Electron microscopy showed that red/brown phosphorus forms long, parallel nanorods with a diameter between 3.4 Å and 4.7 Å. [43]

Properties

Properties of some allotropes of phosphorus [44] [45]
Formwhite(α)white(β)violetblack
Symmetry Body-centred cubic Triclinic Monoclinic Orthorhombic
Pearson symbol aP24mP84oS8
Space group I43mP1 No. 2P2/c No. 13Cmca No. 64
Density (g/cm3)1.8281.882.362.69
Bandgap (eV)2.11.50.34
Refractive index 1.82442.62.4

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphorus</span> Chemical element, symbol P and atomic number 15

Phosphorus is a chemical element; it has symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. It has a concentration in the Earth's crust of about one gram per kilogram. In minerals, phosphorus generally occurs as phosphate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allotropes of carbon</span> Materials made only out of carbon

Carbon is capable of forming many allotropes due to its valency. Well-known forms of carbon include diamond and graphite. In recent decades, many more allotropes have been discovered and researched, including ball shapes such as buckminsterfullerene and sheets such as graphene. Larger-scale structures of carbon include nanotubes, nanobuds and nanoribbons. Other unusual forms of carbon exist at very high temperatures or extreme pressures. Around 500 hypothetical 3‑periodic allotropes of carbon are known at the present time, according to the Samara Carbon Allotrope Database (SACADA).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adamantane</span> Molecule with three connected cyclohexane rings arranged in the "armchair" configuration

Adamantane is an organic compound with formula C10H16 or, more descriptively, (CH)4(CH2)6. Adamantane molecules can be described as the fusion of three cyclohexane rings. The molecule is both rigid and virtually stress-free. Adamantane is the most stable isomer of C10H16. The spatial arrangement of carbon atoms in the adamantane molecule is the same as in the diamond crystal. This similarity led to the name adamantane, which is derived from the Greek adamantinos (relating to steel or diamond). It is a white solid with a camphor-like odor. It is the simplest diamondoid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphide</span>

In chemistry, a phosphide is a compound containing the P3− ion or its equivalent. Many different phosphides are known, with widely differing structures. Most commonly encountered on the binary phosphides, i.e. those materials consisting only of phosphorus and a less electronegative element. Numerous are polyphosphides, which are solids consisting of anionic chains or clusters of phosphorus. Phosphides are known with the majority of less electronegative elements with the exception of Hg, Pb, Sb, Bi, Te, and Po. Finally, some phosphides are molecular.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphaalkyne</span>

In chemistry, a phosphaalkyne is an organophosphorus compound containing a triple bond between phosphorus and carbon with the general formula R-C≡P. Phosphaalkynes are the heavier congeners of nitriles, though, due to the similar electronegativities of phosphorus and carbon, possess reactivity patterns reminiscent of alkynes. Due to their high reactivity, phosphaalkynes are not found naturally on earth, but the simplest phosphaalkyne, phosphaethyne (H-C≡P) has been observed in the interstellar medium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphorene</span>

Phosphorene is a two-dimensional material consisting of phosphorus. It consists of a single layer of black phosphorus, the most stable allotrope of phosphorus. Phosphorene is analogous to graphene. Among two-dimensional materials, phosphorene is a competitor to graphene because it has a nonzero fundamental band gap that can be modulated by strain and the number of layers in a stack. Phosphorene was first isolated in 2014 by mechanical exfoliation. Liquid exfoliation is a promising method for scalable phosphorene production.

In crystallography, polymorphism describes the phenomenon where a compound or element can crystallize into more than one crystal structure. The preceding definition has evolved over many years and is still under discussion today. Discussion of the defining characteristics of polymorphism involves distinguishing among types of transitions and structural changes occurring in polymorphism versus those in other phenomena.

Diphosphorus is an inorganic chemical with the chemical formula P
2. Unlike nitrogen, its lighter pnictogen neighbor which forms a stable N2 molecule with a nitrogen to nitrogen triple bond, phosphorus prefers a tetrahedral form P4 because P-P pi-bonds are high in energy. Diphosphorus is, therefore, very reactive with a bond-dissociation energy (117 kcal/mol or 490 kJ/mol) half that of dinitrogen. The bond distance has been measured at 1.8934 Å.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molecular solid</span> Solid consisting of discrete molecules

A molecular solid is a solid consisting of discrete molecules. The cohesive forces that bind the molecules together are van der Waals forces, dipole–dipole interactions, quadrupole interactions, π–π interactions, hydrogen bonding, halogen bonding, London dispersion forces, and in some molecular solids, coulombic interactions. Van der Waals, dipole interactions, quadrupole interactions, π–π interactions, hydrogen bonding, and halogen bonding are typically much weaker than the forces holding together other solids: metallic, ionic, and network solids. Intermolecular interactions typically do not involve delocalized electrons, unlike metallic and certain covalent bonds. Exceptions are charge-transfer complexes such as the tetrathiafulvane-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TTF-TCNQ), a radical ion salt. These differences in the strength of force and electronic characteristics from other types of solids give rise to the unique mechanical, electronic, and thermal properties of molecular solids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allotropes of sulfur</span> Class of substances

The element sulfur exists as many allotropes. In number of allotropes, sulfur is second only to carbon. In addition to the allotropes, each allotrope often exists in polymorphs delineated by Greek prefixes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trisulfur</span> Chemical compound

The S3 molecule, known as trisulfur, sulfur trimer, thiozone, or triatomic sulfur, is a cherry-red allotrope of sulfur. It comprises about 10% of vaporised sulfur at 713 K and 1,333 Pa. It has been observed at cryogenic temperatures as a solid. Under ordinary conditions it converts to cyclooctasulfur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triphosphorus pentanitride</span> Chemical compound

Triphosphorus pentanitride is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula P3N5. Containing only phosphorus and nitrogen, this material is classified as a binary nitride. While it has been investigated for various applications this has not led to any significant industrial uses. It is a white solid, although samples often appear colored owing to impurities.

In materials science, the term single-layer materials or 2D materials refers to crystalline solids consisting of a single layer of atoms. These materials are promising for some applications but remain the focus of research. Single-layer materials derived from single elements generally carry the -ene suffix in their names, e.g. graphene. Single-layer materials that are compounds of two or more elements have -ane or -ide suffixes. 2D materials can generally be categorized as either 2D allotropes of various elements or as compounds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gregory H. Robinson</span> American inorganic chemist

Gregory H. RobinsonFRSC is an American synthetic inorganic chemist and a Foundation Distinguished Professor of Chemistry at the University of Georgia. Robinson's research focuses on unusual bonding motifs and low oxidation state chemistry of molecules containing main group elements such as boron, gallium, germanium, phosphorus, magnesium, and silicon. He has published over 150 research articles, and was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexaphosphabenzene</span> Chemical compound

Hexaphosphabenzene is a valence isoelectronic analogue of benzene and is expected to have a similar planar structure due to resonance stabilization and its sp2 nature. Although several other allotropes of phosphorus are stable, no evidence for the existence of P6 has been reported. Preliminary ab initio calculations on the trimerisation of P2 leading to the formation of the cyclic P6 were performed, and it was predicted that hexaphosphabenzene would decompose to free P2 with an energy barrier of 13−15.4 kcal mol−1, and would therefore not be observed in the uncomplexed state under normal experimental conditions. The presence of an added solvent, such as ethanol, might lead to the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds which may block the destabilizing interaction between phosphorus lone pairs and consequently stabilize P6. The moderate barrier suggests that hexaphosphabenzene could be synthesized from a [2+2+2] cycloaddition of three P2 molecules. Currently, this is a synthetic endeavour which remains to be conquered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allotropes of arsenic</span>

Arsenic in the solid state can be found as gray, black, or yellow allotropes. These various forms feature diverse structural motifs, with yellow arsenic enabling the widest range of reactivity. In particular, reaction of yellow arsenic with main group and transition metal elements results in compounds with wide-ranging structural motifs, with butterfly, sandwich and realgar-type moieties featuring most prominently.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphonium iodide</span> Chemical compound

Phosphonium iodide is a chemical compound with the formula PH
4I. It is an example of a salt containing an unsubstituted phosphonium cation. Phosphonium iodide is commonly used as storage for phosphine and as a reagent for substituting phosphorus into organic molecules.

Phosphide iodides or iodide phosphides are compounds containing anions composed of iodide (I−) and phosphide (P3−). They can be considered as mixed anion compounds. They are in the category of pnictidehalides. Related compounds include the phosphide chlorides, arsenide iodides antimonide iodides and phosphide bromides.

Arsenide iodides or iodide arsenides are compounds containing anions composed of iodide (I−) and arsenide (As3−). They can be considered as mixed anion compounds. They are in the category of pnictidehalides. Related compounds include the arsenide chlorides, arsenide bromides, phosphide iodides, and antimonide iodides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stable phosphorus radicals</span>

Stable and persistent phosphorus radicals are phosphorus-centred radicals that are isolable and can exist for at least short periods of time. Radicals consisting of main group elements are often very reactive and undergo uncontrollable reactions, notably dimerization and polymerization. The common strategies for stabilising these phosphorus radicals usually include the delocalisation of the unpaired electron over a pi system or nearby electronegative atoms, and kinetic stabilisation with bulky ligands. Stable and persistent phosphorus radicals can be classified into three categories: neutral, cationic, and anionic radicals. Each of these classes involve various sub-classes, with neutral phosphorus radicals being the most extensively studied. Phosphorus exists as one isotope 31P (I = 1/2) with large hyperfine couplings relative to other spin active nuclei, making phosphorus radicals particularly attractive for spin-labelling experiments.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2004). Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 392. ISBN   978-0-13-039913-7.
  2. 1 2 Durif, M.-T. Averbuch-Pouchot; A. (1996). Topics in phosphate chemistry. Singapore [u.a.]: World Scientific. p. 3. ISBN   978-981-02-2634-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 Simon, Arndt; Borrmann, Horst; Horakh, Jörg (1997). "On the Polymorphism of White Phosphorus". Chemische Berichte. 130 (9): 1235–1240. doi:10.1002/cber.19971300911.
  4. ↑ Cossairt, Brandi M.; Cummins, Christopher C.; Head, Ashley R.; Lichtenberger, Dennis L.; Berger, Raphael J. F.; Hayes, Stuart A.; Mitzel, Norbert W.; Wu, Gang (2010-06-01). "On the Molecular and Electronic Structures of AsP3 and P4". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 132 (24): 8459–8465. doi:10.1021/ja102580d. ISSN   0002-7863. PMID   20515032.
  5. ↑ "A dangerous guide to beachcombing".
  6. ↑ "Woman mistakes WWII-era munition for precious stone on German beach | DW | 05.08.2017". Deutsche Welle .
  7. ↑ Threlfall, R.E., (1951). 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851–1951. Oldbury: Albright and Wilson Ltd
  8. ↑ Engel, Robert; Cohen, JaimeLee Iolani (2004). Synthesis of Carbon-Phosphorus Bonds (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. §2.3. ISBN   0-8493-1617-0. LCCN   2003060796.
  9. 1 2 Chemistry Part I Class XII (PDF) (Reprinted ed.). India: NCERT. January 2019. p. 177. ISBN   81-7450-648-9.
  10. ↑ Streubel, Rainer (1995). "Phosphaalkyne Cyclooligomers: From Dimers to Hexamers—First Steps on the Way to Phosphorus–Carbon Cage Compounds". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 34 (4): 436–438. doi:10.1002/anie.199504361.
  11. ↑ Kohn, Moritz (1944-11-01). "The discovery of red phosphorus (1847) by Anton von Schrötter (1802–1875)". Journal of Chemical Education. 21 (11): 522. Bibcode:1944JChEd..21..522K. doi:10.1021/ed021p522. ISSN   0021-9584.
  12. ↑ "Red Phosphorus Reliability Alert" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-01-02. Retrieved 2018-01-01.
  13. ↑ Craig Hillman, Red Phosphorus Induced Failures in Encapsulated Circuits, https://www.dfrsolutions.com/hubfs/Resources/services/Red-Phosphorus-Induced-Failures-in-Encapsulated-Circuits.pdf?t=1513022462214
  14. ↑ Dock Brown, The Return of the Red Retardant, SMTAI 2015, https://www.dfrsolutions.com/hubfs/Resources/services/The-Return-of-the-Red-Retardant.pdf?t=1513022462214
  15. ↑ Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2012, 111–112, 409–414.
  16. ↑ Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2016, 55, 9580–9585.
  17. ↑ Curry, Roger (2012-07-08). "Hittorf's Metallic Phosphorus of 1865". LATERAL SCIENCE. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
  18. ↑ Monoclinic phosphorus formed from vapor in the presence of an alkali metal U.S. patent 4,620,968
  19. ↑ Hittorf, W. (1865). "Zur Kenntniss des Phosphors". Annalen der Physik. 202 (10): 193–228. Bibcode:1865AnP...202..193H. doi:10.1002/andp.18652021002.
  20. ↑ Thurn, H.; Krebs, H. (1969-01-15). "Über Struktur und Eigenschaften der Halbmetalle. XXII. Die Kristallstruktur des Hittorfschen Phosphors". Acta Crystallographica Section B (in German). 25 (1): 125–135. Bibcode:1969AcCrB..25..125T. doi:10.1107/S0567740869001853. ISSN   0567-7408.
  21. ↑ Zhang, Lihui; Huang, Hongyang; Zhang, Bo; Gu, Mengyue; Zhao, Dan; Zhao, Xuewen; Li, Longren; Zhou, Jun; Wu, Kai; Cheng, Yonghong; Zhang, Jinying (2020). "Structure and Properties of Violet Phosphorus and Its Phosphorene Exfoliation". Angewandte Chemie. 132 (3): 1090–1096. Bibcode:2020AngCh.132.1090Z. doi:10.1002/ange.201912761. ISSN   1521-3757. PMID   31713959. S2CID   241932000.
  22. ↑ Korolkov, Vladimir V.; Timokhin, Ivan G.; Haubrichs, Rolf; Smith, Emily F.; Yang, Lixu; Yang, Sihai; Champness, Neil R.; Schröder, Martin; Beton, Peter H. (2017-11-09). "Supramolecular networks stabilise and functionalise black phosphorus". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 1385. Bibcode:2017NatCo...8.1385K. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-01797-6. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   5680224 . PMID   29123112.
  23. ↑ Brown, A.; Rundqvist, S. (1965). "Refinement of the crystal structure of black phosphorus". Acta Crystallographica. 19 (4): 684–685. Bibcode:1965AcCry..19..684B. doi:10.1107/S0365110X65004140.
  24. ↑ Cartz, L.; Srinivasa, S. R.; Riedner, R. J.; Jorgensen, J. D.; Worlton, T. G. (1979). "Effect of pressure on bonding in black phosphorus". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 71 (4): 1718. Bibcode:1979JChPh..71.1718C. doi:10.1063/1.438523.
  25. ↑ Ling, Xi; Wang, Han; Huang, Shengxi; Xia, Fengnian; Dresselhaus, Mildred S. (2015-03-27). "The renaissance of black phosphorus". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (15): 4523–4530. arXiv: 1503.08367 . Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4523L. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1416581112 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   4403146 . PMID   25820173.
  26. ↑ Ahuja, Rajeev (2003). "Calculated high pressure crystal structure transformations for phosphorus". Physica Status Solidi B. 235 (2): 282–287. Bibcode:2003PSSBR.235..282A. doi:10.1002/pssb.200301569. S2CID   120578034.
  27. ↑ Bridgman, P. W. (1914-07-01). "Two New Modifications of Phosphorus". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 36 (7): 1344–1363. doi:10.1021/ja02184a002. ISSN   0002-7863.
  28. ↑ Lange, Stefan; Schmidt, Peer; Nilges, Tom (2007). "Au3SnP7@Black Phosphorus: An Easy Access to Black Phosphorus". Inorganic Chemistry. 46 (10): 4028–35. doi:10.1021/ic062192q. PMID   17439206.
  29. ↑ Vaghasiya, Jayraj V.; Mayorga–Martinez, Carmen C.; Vyskočil, Jan; Pumera, Martin (2023-01-03). "Black phosphorous-based human-machine communication interface". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 2. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14....2V. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-34482-4. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   9810665 . PMID   36596775.
  30. ↑ Chemistry, University of; Prague, Technology. "Black phosphorus–based human–machine communication interface: A breakthrough in assistive technology". techxplore.com. Retrieved 2023-06-16.
  31. ↑ "Black Phosphorus Powder and Crystals". Ossila. Retrieved 2019-08-23.
  32. ↑ Zhang, Yuanbo; Chen, Xian Hui; Feng, Donglai; Wu, Hua; Ou, Xuedong; Ge, Qingqin; Ye, Guo Jun; Yu, Yijun; Li, Likai (May 2014). "Black phosphorus field-effect transistors". Nature Nanotechnology. 9 (5): 372–377. arXiv: 1401.4117 . Bibcode:2014NatNa...9..372L. doi:10.1038/nnano.2014.35. ISSN   1748-3395. PMID   24584274. S2CID   17218693.
  33. ↑ Wang, J.; Rousseau, A.; Yang, M.; Low, T.; Francoeur, S.; Kéna-Cohen, S. (2020). "Mid-infrared Polarized Emission from Black Phosphorus Light-Emitting Diodes". Nano Letters. 20 (5): 3651–3655. arXiv: 1911.09184 . Bibcode:2020NanoL..20.3651W. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c00581. PMID   32286837. S2CID   208202133.
  34. ↑ Smith, B.; Vermeersch, B.; Carrete, J.; Ou, E.; Kim, J.; Li, S. (2017). "Temperature and Thickness Dependences of the Anisotropic In-Plane Thermal Conductivity of Black Phosphorus". Adv Mater. 29 (5): 1603756. Bibcode:2017AdM....2903756S. doi: 10.1002/adma.201603756 . OSTI   1533031. PMID   27882620. S2CID   5479539.
  35. ↑ Liu, Xiaolong D.; Wood, Joshua D.; Chen, Kan-Sheng; Cho, EunKyung; Hersam, Mark C. (9 February 2015). "In Situ Thermal Decomposition of Exfoliated Two-Dimensional Black Phosphorus". Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 6 (5): 773–778. arXiv: 1502.02644 . doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b00043. PMID   26262651. S2CID   24648672.
  36. ↑ Wood, Joshua D.; Wells, Spencer A.; Jariwala, Deep; Chen, Kan-Sheng; Cho, EunKyung; Sangwan, Vinod K.; Liu, Xiaolong; Lauhon, Lincoln J.; Marks, Tobin J.; Hersam, Mark C. (7 November 2014). "Effective Passivation of Exfoliated Black Phosphorus Transistors against Ambient Degradation". Nano Letters. 14 (12): 6964–6970. arXiv: 1411.2055 . Bibcode:2014NanoL..14.6964W. doi:10.1021/nl5032293. PMID   25380142. S2CID   22128620.
  37. ↑ Wu, Ryan J.; Topsakal, Mehmet; Low, Tony; Robbins, Matthew C.; Haratipour, Nazila; Jeong, Jong Seok; Wentzcovitch, Renata M.; Koester, Steven J.; Mkhoyan, K. Andre (2015-11-01). "Atomic and electronic structure of exfoliated black phosphorus". Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A. 33 (6): 060604. Bibcode:2015JVSTA..33f0604W. doi:10.1116/1.4926753. ISSN   0734-2101.
  38. ↑ Zheng, Weiran; Lee, Jeongyeon; Gao, Zhi-Wen; Li, Yong; Lin, Shenghuang; Lau, Shu Ping; Lee, Lawrence Yoon Suk (30 June 2020). "Laser-Assisted Ultrafast Exfoliation of Black Phosphorus in Liquid with Tunable Thickness for Li-Ion Batteries". Advanced Energy Materials. 10 (31): 1903490. doi:10.1002/aenm.201903490. hdl: 10397/100139 . S2CID   225707528.
  39. ↑ Karttunen, Antti J.; Linnolahti, Mikko; Pakkanen, Tapani A. (15 June 2007). "Icosahedral and Ring-Shaped Allotropes of Phosphorus". Chemistry – A European Journal. 13 (18): 5232–5237. doi:10.1002/chem.200601572. PMID   17373003.
  40. ↑ Zhang, Jinying; Zhao, Dan; Xiao, Dingbin; Ma, Chuansheng; Du, Hongchu; Li, Xin; Zhang, Lihui; Huang, Jialiang; Huang, Hongyang; Jia, Chun-Lin; Tománek, David; Niu, Chunming (6 February 2017). "Assembly of Ring-Shaped Phosphorus within Carbon Nanotube Nanoreactors". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 56 (7): 1850–1854. doi:10.1002/anie.201611740. PMID   28074606.
  41. ↑ Zhang, Jia Lin; Zhao, Songtao and 10 others (30 June 2016). "Epitaxial Growth of Single Layer Blue Phosphorus: A New Phase of Two-Dimensional Phosphorus". Nano Letters. 16 (8): 4903–4908. Bibcode:2016NanoL..16.4903Z. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01459. PMID   27359041.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  42. ↑ Piro, Na; Figueroa, Js; Mckellar, Jt; Cummins, Cc (2006). "Triple-bond reactivity of diphosphorus molecules". Science. 313 (5791): 1276–9. Bibcode:2006Sci...313.1276P. doi:10.1126/science.1129630. PMID   16946068. S2CID   27740669.
  43. 1 2 Pfitzner, A; Bräu, Mf; Zweck, J; Brunklaus, G; Eckert, H (Aug 2004). "Phosphorus nanorods – two allotropic modifications of a long-known element". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 43 (32): 4228–31. doi: 10.1002/anie.200460244 . PMID   15307095.
  44. ↑ A. Holleman; N. Wiberg (1985). "XV 2.1.3". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (33 ed.). de Gruyter. ISBN   978-3-11-012641-9.
  45. ↑ Berger, L. I. (1996). Semiconductor materials . CRC Press. p.  84. ISBN   978-0-8493-8912-2.
White phosphorus
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.