Amanita ocreata

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Amanita ocreata
Western North American destroying angel
Amanita ocreata 79782.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Amanitaceae
Genus: Amanita
Species:
A. ocreata
Binomial name
Amanita ocreata
Amanita ocreata map.png
Approximate distribution (green)
Amanita ocreata
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svgFlat cap icon.svg Cap is convex or flat
Free gills icon2.svg Hymenium is free
Ring and volva stipe icon.svg Stipe has a ring and volva
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is white
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Deadly.pngEdibility is deadly

Amanita ocreata, commonly known as the death angel, destroying angel, angel of death or more precisely western North American destroying angel, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita . The large fruiting bodies (the mushrooms) generally appear in spring; the cap may be white or ochre and often develops a brownish centre, while the stipe, ring, gill and volva are all white. A. ocreata resembles several edible species commonly consumed by humans, increasing the risk of accidental poisoning. Mature fruiting bodies can be confused with the edible A. velosa (springtime amanita), [2] A. lanei or Volvopluteus gloiocephalus , while immature specimens may be difficult to distinguish from edible Agaricus mushrooms or puffballs.

Contents

The species occurs in the Pacific Northwest and California Floristic Provinces of North America, associating with oak trees. Similar in toxicity to the death cap ( A. phalloides ) and destroying angels of Europe ( A. virosa ) and eastern North America ( A. bisporigera ), it is a potentially deadly fungus responsible for several poisonings in California. [3] Its principal toxic constituent, α-Amanitin, damages the liver and kidneys, often fatally, and has no known antidote, though silybin and N-acetylcysteine show promise. [4] The initial symptoms are gastrointestinal and include abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting. These subside temporarily after 2–3 days, though ongoing damage to internal organs during this time is common; symptoms of jaundice, diarrhea, delirium, seizures, and coma may follow with death from liver failure 6–16 days post ingestion.

Taxonomy

Amanita ocreata was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1909 from material collected by Charles Fuller Baker in Claremont, California. [5] The specific epithet is derived from the Latin ocrěātus 'wearing greaves' from ocrea 'greave', [6] referring to its loose, baggy volva. [7] Amanita bivolvata is a botanical synonym. The mushroom belongs to the same section (Phalloideae) and genus (Amanita) as several deadly poisonous fungi including the death cap (A. phalloides) and several all-white species of Amanita known as "destroying angels": A. bisporigera of eastern North America, and the European A. virosa . "Death angel" is used as an alternate common name.

Description

Amanita ocreata is generally stouter than the other fungi termed destroying angels. It first appears as a white egg-shaped object covered with a universal veil. As it grows, the mushroom breaks free, though there may rarely be ragged patches of veil left at the cap edges. The cap is initially hemispherical, before becoming more convex and flattening, sometimes irregularly. This may result in undulations in the cap, which may be between 5–15 centimetres (2–6 inches) in diameter. [8] The colour varies from white, through yellowish-white to shades of ochre, sometimes with a brownish centre. Occasionally parts of the fruiting bodies may have pinkish tones. The rest of the fungus below the cap is white. The crowded gills are free to narrowly adnate. The stipe ranges from 6–20 cm (2+1⁄2–8 in) in height and is about 1–3 cm (1⁄2–1+1⁄4 in) thick, bearing a thin white membranous ring until old age. [8] The volva is thin, smooth and sac-like, [8] although may be quite extensive and contain almost half the stipe. The spore print is white, and the subglobose to ovoid to subellipsoid, amyloid spores are 9–14 x 7–10  μm viewed under a microscope. [3] There is typically no smell, though some fruiting bodies may have a slight odour, described as that of bleach or chlorine, dead fish or iodine. Like other destroying angels, the flesh stains yellow when treated with potassium hydroxide. [9] [10]

Similar species

This fungus resembles the edible mushrooms Agaricus arvensis and A. campestris , and the puffballs ( Lycoperdon spp.) before the caps have opened and the gills have become visible, so those collecting immature fungi run the risk of confusing the varieties. It also resembles and grows in the same areas as the edible and prized Amanita velosa , which can be distinguished from A. ocreata by its lack of ring, striate cap margin and thick universal veil remnants comprising the veil. [7] The edible Amanita calyptroderma lacks a ring and is more likely to have veil patches remaining on its cap, which is generally darker. Volvariella speciosa has pink spores and no ring or volva. [11]

Distribution and habitat

Appearing from January to April, A. ocreata occurs later in the year than other amanitas except A. calyptroderma. It is found in mixed woodland on the Pacific coast of North America, [3] from Washington south through California to Baja California in Mexico. [10] It may feasibly occur on Vancouver Island in British Columbia though this has never been confirmed. [12] It forms ectomycorrhizal relationships and is found in association with coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), [13] as well as hazel (Corylus spp.). [10] In Oregon and Washington, it may also be associated with the Garry oak (Quercus garryana). [12]

Toxicity

A. ocreata is highly toxic, and has been responsible for mushroom poisonings in western North America, particularly in the spring. It contains highly toxic amatoxins, as well as phallotoxins, a feature shared with the closely related death cap ( A. phalloides ), half a cap of which can be enough to kill a human, and other species known as destroying angels. [3] [14] There is some evidence it may be the most toxic of all the North American phalloideae, as a higher proportion of people consuming it had organ damage and 40% perished. [15] Dogs have also been known to consume this fungus in California with fatal results. [16]

Amatoxins consist of at least eight compounds with a similar structure, that of eight amino-acid rings; [17] of those found in A. ocreata, α-Amanitin is the most prevalent and along with β-Amanitin is likely to be responsible for the toxic effects. [3] [18] [19] The major toxic mechanism is the inhibition of RNA polymerase II, a vital enzyme in the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA, and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Without mRNA, essential protein synthesis and hence cell metabolism stop and the cell dies. [20] The liver is the principal organ affected, as it is the first organ encountered after absorption by the gastrointestinal tract, though other organs, especially the kidneys, are susceptible to the toxins. [21]

The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds, all of which have seven similar peptide rings. Although they are highly toxic to liver cells, [22] phallotoxins have since been found to have little input into the destroying angel's toxicity as they are not absorbed through the gut. [20] Furthermore, one phallotoxin, phalloidin, is also found in the edible (and sought-after) blusher (Amanita rubescens). [17]

Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms of poisoning by A. ocreata are initially gastrointestinal in nature and include colicky abdominal pain, with watery diarrhea and vomiting which may lead to dehydration and, in severe cases, hypotension, tachycardia, hypoglycemia, and acid-base disturbances. [23] [24] The initial symptoms resolve two to three days after ingestion of the fungus. A more serious deterioration signifying liver involvement may then occur—jaundice, diarrhea, delirium, seizures, and coma due to fulminant liver failure and attendant hepatic encephalopathy caused by the accumulation of normally liver-removed substances in the blood. [25] Kidney failure (either secondary to severe hepatitis [26] [27] or caused by direct toxic renal damage) [20] and coagulopathy may appear during this stage. Life-threatening complications include increased intracranial pressure, intracranial hemorrhage, sepsis, pancreatitis, acute kidney injury, and cardiac arrest. [23] [24] Death generally occurs six to sixteen days after the poisoning. [28]

Treatment

Consumption of A. ocreata is a medical emergency that requires hospitalization. There are four main categories of therapy for poisoning: preliminary medical care, supportive measures, specific treatments, and liver transplantation. [4]

Preliminary care consists of gastric decontamination with either activated carbon or gastric lavage. However, due to the delay between ingestion and the first symptoms of poisoning, it is commonplace for patients to arrive for treatment long after ingestion, potentially reducing the efficacy of these interventions. [4] [29] Supportive measures are directed towards treating the dehydration which results from fluid loss during the gastrointestinal phase of intoxication and correction of metabolic acidosis, hypoglycemia, electrolyte imbalances, and impaired coagulation. [4]

No definitive antidote for amatoxin poisoning is available, but some specific treatments such as intravenous penicillin G have been shown to improve survival. [30] There is some evidence that intravenous silibinin, an extract from the blessed milk thistle (Silybum marianum), may be beneficial in reducing the effects of amatoxins, preventing their uptake by hepatocytes, thereby protecting undamaged hepatic tissue. [31] [32] In patients developing liver failure, a liver transplant is often the only option to prevent death. Liver transplants have become a well-established option in amatoxin poisoning. [33] This is a complicated issue, however, as transplants themselves may have significant complications and mortality; patients require long-term immunosuppression to maintain the transplant. [4] Evidence suggests that, although survival rates have improved with modern medical treatment, in patients with moderate to severe poisoning up to half of those who did recover suffered permanent liver damage. [34] However, a follow-up study has shown that most survivors recover completely without any sequelae if treated within 36 hours of the mushrooms ingestion. [35]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Amanita muscaria</i> Species of fungus in the genus Amanita

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus Amanita. It is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, and usually red mushroom.

<i>Amanita phalloides</i> Poisonous mushroom (death cap)

Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the death cap, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Widely distributed across Europe, but introduced to other parts of the world since the late twentieth century, A. phalloides forms ectomycorrhizas with various broadleaved trees. In some cases, the death cap has been introduced to new regions with the cultivation of non-native species of oak, chestnut, and pine. The large fruiting bodies (mushrooms) appear in summer and autumn; the caps are generally greenish in colour with a white stipe and gills. The cap colour is variable, including white forms, and is thus not a reliable identifier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Destroying angel</span> Deadly poisonous fungus

The name destroying angel applies to several similar, closely related species of deadly all-white mushrooms in the genus Amanita. They are Amanita virosa in Europe and A. bisporigera and A. ocreata in eastern and western North America, respectively. Another European species of Amanita referred to as the destroying angel, Amanita verna - also referred to as the 'Fool's mushroom' - was first described in France in 1780.

<i>Amanita</i> Genus of mushrooms including some very deadly species

The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. The genus is responsible for approximately 95% of fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own. The most potent toxin present in these mushrooms is α-Amanitin.

α-Amanitin Chemical compound

α-Amanitin (alpha-Amanitin) is a cyclic peptide of eight amino acids. It is possibly the most deadly of all the amatoxins, toxins found in several species of the mushroom genus Amanita, one being the death cap as well as the destroying angel, a complex of similar species, principally A. virosa and A. bisporigera. It is also found in the mushrooms Galerina marginata and Conocybe filaris. The oral LD50 of amanitin is 100 μg/kg for rats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushroom poisoning</span> Harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom

Mushroom poisoning is poisoning resulting from the ingestion of mushrooms that contain toxic substances. Symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death in about 10 days. Mushroom toxins are secondary metabolites produced by the fungus.

<i>Amanita virosa</i> Species of fungus

Amanita virosa, commonly known in Europe as the destroying angel or the European destroying angel amanita, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Occurring in Europe, A. virosa associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The large fruiting bodies appear in summer and autumn; the caps, stipes and gills are all white in colour.

Amatoxin is the collective name of a subgroup of at least nine related toxic compounds found in three genera of poisonous mushrooms and one species of the genus Pholiotina. Amatoxins are very potent, as little as half a mushroom cap can cause severe liver injury if swallowed.

<i>Amanita verna</i> Species of fungus

Amanita verna, commonly known as the fool's mushroom or the spring destroying angel, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Occurring in Europe in spring, A. verna associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The caps, stipes and gills are all white in colour.

<i>Galerina marginata</i> Poisonous fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

Galerina marginata, known colloquially as funeral bell, deadly skullcap, autumn skullcap or deadly galerina, is a species of extremely poisonous mushroom-forming fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae of the order Agaricales. It contains the same deadly amatoxins found in the death cap. Ingestion in toxic amounts causes severe liver damage with vomiting, diarrhea, hypothermia, and eventual death if not treated rapidly. About ten poisonings have been attributed to the species now grouped as G. marginata over the last century.

<i>Amanita velosa</i> Species of fungus

Amanita velosa, commonly known as the springtime amanita, or bittersweet orange ringless amanita is a species of agaric found in California, as well as southern Oregon and Baja California. Although a prized edible mushroom, it bears similarities to some deadly poisonous species.

β-Amanitin Cyclic peptide part of a group of toxins present in Amanita mushrooms

β-Amanitin (beta-Amanitin) is a cyclic peptide comprising eight amino acids. It is part of a group of toxins called amatoxins, which can be found in several mushrooms belonging to the genus Amanita. Some examples are the death cap and members of the destroying angel complex, which includes A. virosa and A. bisporigera. Due to the presence of α-Amanitin, β-Amanitin, γ-Amanitin and epsilon-Amanitin these mushrooms are highly lethal to human beings.

γ-Amanitin Cyclic peptide part of a group of toxins present in Amanita mushrooms

γ-Amanitin (gamma-Amanitin) is a cyclic peptide of eight amino acids. It is an amatoxin, a group of toxins isolated from and found in several members of the mushroom genus Amanita, one being the death cap as well as the destroying angel, a complex of similar species, principally A. virosa and A. bisporigera. The compound is highly toxic, inhibits RNA polymerase II, disrupts synthesis of mRNA, and can be fatal.

The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds, all of which are bicyclic heptapeptides, isolated from the death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides). They differ from the closely related amatoxins by being one residue smaller, both in the final product and the precursor protein.

<i>Galerina sulciceps</i> Species of fungus

Galerina sulciceps is a dangerously toxic species of fungus in the family Strophariaceae, of the order Agaricales. It is distributed in tropical Indonesia and India, but has reportedly been found fruiting in European greenhouses on occasion. More toxic than the deathcap, G. sulciceps has been shown to contain the toxins alpha- (α-), beta- (β-) and gamma- (γ-) amanitin; a series of poisonings in Indonesia in the 1930s resulted in 14 deaths from the consumption of this species. It has a typical "little brown mushroom" appearance, with few obvious external characteristics to help distinguish it from many other similar nondescript brown species. The fruit bodies of the fungus are tawny to ochre, deepening to reddish-brown at the base of the stem. The gills are well-separated, and there is no ring present on the stem.

<i>Amanita bisporigera</i> Poisonous species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae endemic to North America

Amanita bisporigera is a deadly poisonous species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. It is commonly known as the eastern destroying angel amanita, the eastern North American destroying angel or just as the destroying angel, although the fungus shares this latter name with three other lethal white Amanita species, A. ocreata, A. verna and A. virosa. The mushroom has a smooth white cap that can reach up to 10 centimetres across and a stipe up to 14 cm tall with a white skirt-like ring near the top. The bulbous stipe base is covered with a membranous sac-like volva. The white gills are free from attachment to the stalk and crowded closely together. As the species name suggests, A. bisporigera typically bears two spores on the basidia, although this characteristic is not immutable. A. bisporigera closely resembles a few other white amanitas, including the equally deadly A. virosa and A. verna.

<i>Amanita exitialis</i> Species of fungus

Amanita exitialis, also known as the Guangzhou destroying angel, is a mushroom of the large genus Amanita. It is distributed in eastern Asia, and probably also in India where it has been misidentified as A. verna. Deadly poisonous, it is a member of section Phalloideae and related to the death cap A. phalloides. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) are white, small to medium-sized with caps up to 7 cm (2.8 in) in diameter, a somewhat friable ring and a firm volva. Unlike most agaric mushrooms which typically have four-spored basidia, the basidia of A. exitialis are almost entirely two-spored. Eight people were fatally poisoned in China after consuming the mushroom in 2000, and another 20 have been fatally poisoned since that incident. Molecular analysis shows that the species has a close phylogenetic relationship with three other toxic white Amanitas: A. subjunquillea var. alba, A. virosa and A. bisporigera.

<i>Amanita sphaerobulbosa</i> Species of fungus

Amanita sphaerobulbosa, commonly known as the Asian abrupt-bulbed Lepidella, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Amanitaceae. First described by mycologist Tsuguo Hongo in 1969, it is found in Southern Asia.

<i>Amanita fuliginea</i> Species of fungus

Amanita fuliginea, commonly known as the east Asian brown death cap, is a species of deadly poisonous mushroom in the family Amanitaceae. The fruit bodies have convex, dark gray to blackish caps measuring 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) in diameter. The gills, largely free from attachment to the stipe, are white and have short gills (lamellulae) interspersed. The spores are roughly spherical, amyloid, and typically measure 8–11 by 7–9.5 µm. The species was described as new to science by Japanese mycologist Tsuguo Hongo in 1953. A. fuliginea is classified in Amanita section Phalloideae, which contains the infamous destroying angel.

Amanita hygroscopia, also known as the pink-gilled destroying angel is a deadly poisonous fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita.

References

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  2. ↑ Arora, David (February 1, 1991). All That the Rain Promises and More: A Hip Pocket Guide to Western Mushrooms. ISBN   9780898153880.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Ammirati, Joseph F.; Thiers, Harry D.; Horgen, Paul A. (1977). "Amatoxin containing mushrooms:Amanita ocreata and Amanita phalloides in California". Mycologia. Mycologia, Vol. 69, No. 6. 69 (6): 1095–1108. doi:10.2307/3758932. JSTOR   3758932. PMID   564452.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Enjalbert F, Rapior S, Nouguier-Soulé J, Guillon S, Amouroux N, Cabot C (2002). "Treatment of amatoxin poisoning: 20-year retrospective analysis". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 40 (6): 715–57. doi:10.1081/CLT-120014646. PMID   12475187. S2CID   22919515.
  5. ↑ Peck, Charles Horton (1909). "New species of fungi". Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 36, No. 6. 36 (6): 329–39. doi:10.2307/2479371. JSTOR   2479371.
  6. ↑ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN   978-0-304-52257-6.
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  14. ↑ Benjamin, Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas p. 211
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  34. ↑ Benjamin, Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas, pp. 231–232
  35. ↑ Giannini L, Vannacci A, Missanelli A, Mastroianni R, Mannaioni PF, Moroni F, Masini E (2007). "Amatoxin poisoning: A 15-year retrospective analysis and follow-up evaluation of 105 patients". Clinical Toxicology. 45 (5): 539–42. doi:10.1080/15563650701365834. PMID   17503263. S2CID   37788880.

Works cited

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